The main genre varieties of fairy tales. Features and signs of a fairy tale
Since the fairy tale genre is diverse and versatile, and their classifications are heterogeneous in composition, we will consider in more detail fairy tales that are older than others and bear traces of a person’s initial acquaintance with the world around him, as well as everyday ones, because it is this class of fairy tales that is brightly reflects the features of traditional national culture and Everyday life people.
Under fairy tales we will understand the genre of fairy tales, which, as V. Ya. Propp notes, begins with the infliction of any damage or harm (abduction, exile, etc.) a meeting with the donor, who gives him a magic tool or an assistant with which the subject of the search is found. In the future, the tale tells of a duel with the enemy, a return and a chase. Often the composition gives a complication. For example, the hero is already returning home, the brothers throw him into the abyss. In the future, he re-arrives, is tested through difficult tasks, reigns and marries in his kingdom or in the kingdom of his father-in-law.
V. Ya. Propp also emphasized that fairy tales “stand out not on the basis of magic or miraculousness, but on a completely clear composition” [Propp, 2000, p. 5-6].
A fairy tale is based on a complex composition, which has an exposition, plot, plot development, climax and denouement.
As many researchers point out, the fairy tale is necessarily based on the image of initiation (initiation is a kind of rite of passage, initiation of young men into the category of adult men) - hence the “other kingdom”, where the hero should go in order to acquire a bride or fabulous values, after which he must come back home. The story is entirely taken out of real life.
Another essential feature of a fairy tale is a wonderful world. The wonderful world is an objective, fantastic, unlimited world. Thanks to unlimited fantasy and the wonderful principle of organizing material in fairy tales with a wonderful world of possible "transformation", striking in their speed (children grow by leaps and bounds, every day they become stronger or more beautiful). Not only the speed of the process is unreal, but also its very nature. "Conversion" in fairy tales of the miraculous type, as a rule, takes place with the help of magical creatures or objects.
Each actor has a set of specific functions, there is a linear sequence of these functions, as well as a set of roles that is distributed among specific characters and correlated with their functions. Functions are distributed among seven characters: antagonist (pest), donor, assistant, princess or her father, sender, hero, false hero [Propp, 2000, p. 17].
In the exposition of the fairy tale there are consistently 2 generations - the older and the younger. Also in the exposition there is an absence of the older generation. There is also an enhanced form of absence - the death of parents.
The plot of the tale is that the main character or heroine discovers a loss or shortage, or here the motives for the ban, the violation of the ban, and the misfortune that follows this violation can be traced. This is followed by the beginning of counteraction or, in other words, the departure of the hero from the house.
The development of the plot is based on the search for the lost or missing.
The climax of the fairy tale is that the protagonist (heroine) fights against the opposing force and always defeats it. In addition to the battle, there is also its equivalent - solving difficult problems that are always solved.
Resolution is overcoming a loss or lack. As a rule, the hero (heroine) at the end acquires power and a higher social status, the owner of which he was not at the beginning.
At the core everyday fairy tales lie the events of real life, close to everyday life, which reflect the reality and life of the people. This fact is a characteristic and fundamental feature of everyday fairy tales.
Actions, unlike a fairy tale, take place not in a distant kingdom, but in an ordinary city or village. Here there is only one earthly world and the features of life are realistically transmitted. It is noteworthy that real geographical names can be indicated in a household tale.
In everyday fairy tales, there are no phenomena of miracles and fantastic images, while heroes are usually simple people: poor peasants and workers, soldiers, artisans and other representatives various professions. The heroes act in a standard life environment familiar to these categories of people, such as service, construction, arable land, etc. The main characters are opposed not by fantastic evil forces, but by noble or wealthy people: priests, merchants, landowners.
The development of the plot of a household fairy tale is based on a household conflict that arises between the rich and the poor, the weak and the strong. In addition, the conflict of everyday fairy tales often lies in the fact that decency, honesty, nobility oppose such personality traits as greed, anger, envy. It was these qualities that caused sharp rejection among the common people. The conflict is resolved in favor of the main character, but not in a miraculous way and without whose help, as happens in a fairy tale, but thanks to the mind, resourcefulness, cunning, dexterity and perseverance of the main character. It is because of the possession of these qualities that the hero succeeds in solving difficult problems and in the final he is rewarded for this.
Praise and condemnation in everyday fairy tales sound stronger than in fairy tales. Another feature of everyday fairy tales is the presence of irony and self-irony.
One of the goals of a household tale is to ridicule the vices and shortcomings of characters that are common in a certain folk environment. Unlike fairy tales, everyday fairy tales contain a significant element of social and moral criticism, which, in turn, determines social and moral assessments and preferences. So, for example, in a folk tale, inept people and loafers are ridiculed. A household tale treats skillful and hardworking workers with respect and reverence. Usually, those heroes who undeservedly possess wealth, despise work and do not know how to work, are assigned a negative connotation. In contrast, they are represented by the common people, who, thanks to honest work and ingenuity, will be rewarded.
Thus, in fairy tales and everyday life, there is a special attention to the possession of any special qualities for the performance of a particular activity, to some personal qualities, and, in addition, to the attitude to work.
1.3. Linguistic and cultural concept "profession"
In the cognition of the world, in the processes of communication and nomination, a person plays an important role as a subject of activity and cognition, as the one who creates it and at the same time is its bearer. That is why the concept of "profession" plays a significant role in shaping the national picture of the world and the mentality of the people. Since the professional activity of a person accompanies a person at almost all stages of his development, the names of persons by profession occupies a significant place in life, and, consequently, in the vocabulary of each language. Based on the importance of studying the concept of "profession" in modern linguistics, this concept was considered, for example, in the works and articles of E. I. Golovanova, N. Yu. Kuznetsova, K. A. Kerer, M. N. Bondarchuk.
The abstract concept of "profession" is universal. According to the definition of the name of this concept in Russian, given by S. I. Ozhegov, a profession (from Latin profiteor “I declare my business”) is understood as “the main occupation, labor activity» [Ozhegov, URL].
In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, a profession is defined as “a type of labor activity (occupation) of a person who owns a complex of special theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired as a result of special training, work experience” [TSB, URL].
E. I. Golovanova considers a “profession” as “a type of activity that requires special training, is the main source of income and is perceived by a person as his main occupation” [Golovanova, 2004, p. 23].
Based on the definitions listed above, we understand a profession as the main activity of an individual, which can be carried out only with certain, specific skills. From the above definitions, we can conclude that "profession" is included in another, broader concept of "human activity".
The carrier of certain skills and special training is a person with professional knowledge - a professional figure. Obviously what is meaningful concept finds a variety of expressions in language. E. I. Golovanova considers the names of persons by profession as "a set of language models that implement different interpretations of a person carrying out professional activities." Consequently, the category of a professional figure as a carrier of certain knowledge is a set of language models that give different interpretations of a person who carries out professional activities. This category is universal. However, despite the universality of the category, which is represented in all languages, professional activity is an integral part of the culture of individual peoples, in each language this concept has a number of features due to the perception of the surrounding world, national character, and the uniqueness of ethnic cultures.
Having considered the definition of "professional figure", it is advisable to note the importance and inseparability of this concept in the study of the concept of "profession", especially within the framework of a particular national picture of the world.
In each of the languages there is an individual set of tools for processing information about a professional figure, and there are also many specific features that make it possible to judge different attitudes towards representatives of a particular profession, about a different degree of significance of the components of a particular profession. professional activity, about linguistic preferences in the representation of persons by profession. All this confirms the well-known idea of W. von Humboldt that different languages do not reflect different worlds, but a different vision of the world [Humboldt, 1985, p. 370]. In this regard, understanding of representatives of other cultures is possible through understanding the features of their thinking and worldview fixed in the language.
According to E. I. Golovanova, “the sphere of professional activity is somehow represented in all genres of ethnoculture - in songs, traditions and legends, in ritual and non-ritual games, in small oral poetic forms - proverbs, riddles, omens, proverbs” [Golovanova, 2008, p. 229]. The names of persons by profession and in fairy tales are often used.
The concept of "profession" and the concept of "professional figure", which is its structural component, are an integral part of the culture of an ethnos, accumulate the features of a particular culture and determine its specificity. In every culture, the concept of "profession" has a specific history of formation and development, therefore, the names of persons by profession express the value picture of the world inherent in a particular people.
A fairy tale is one of the most important and ancient genres (or, in the opinion of a number of scientists, multi-genre types) of folklore. This is the core of classical folk prose. Fairy tales are known to all peoples of the world. Many plots pass from one people to another, changing the national "appearance", but in general and most importantly remaining the same; they are called "wandering" plots. A fairy tale is a symbol of the unity of all peoples the globe. According to E.A. Kostyukhin, “the Russian fairy tale is part of a huge fairy tale “continent” stretching from India to Iceland”. The versatility of the tale is as striking as its immortality. The fairy tale has preserved the traditional and eternal folk ideas about the beautiful and terrible in man and the world, about good and evil, about justice, love and happiness. The fairy tale surprisingly combines childish naivete, faith in miracles with deep wisdom and a sober look at the life of an elderly person.
There is boundless literature about the fairy tale, there is an international society for the study of it, which periodically gathers congresses, but the secrets of the fairy tale cannot be completely revealed. The knowledge of a folklore fairy tale is also necessary for a literary historian: not only did it serve as a source of the genre of a literary (author's) fairy tale, but it also gave rise to the genre of a short story in medieval Europe.
A fairy tale in folklore has never performed pragmatic functions, but mainly aesthetic ones. Its task is to entertain, captivate with an entertaining story, surprise, laugh, intrigue, make you worry. In addition, it performs a didactic function - to present a moral lesson (unobtrusively, without direct edification). In primitive societies, however, the purpose of telling fairy tales (like incantations) was to have a magical effect on nature and man. For example, the dexterity, invulnerability of the protagonist should, after the story, "pass" to the male hunters listening to the tale. However, this, most likely, was still not quite a fairy tale, but a mythological story - its "ancestor".
Traditionally fairy tales (in Ancient Russia"fables", singular “fable” - from the verb “bayat”) were told by their performers - storytellers - during leisure hours, in the summer heat and long winter evenings, and even “for the coming sleep” to both adults and children. Fairy tales (and far from their entire repertoire) reached the children's audience relatively late, only in the 19th century. The fairy tale did not know social boundaries either: it could be heard in a peasant's hut, and in a soldier's barracks (they used to serve 25 years, and there were wars not all the time), and in a noble living room (recall the lover of fairy tales A.S. Pushkin), and even in royal courts.
The word “fairy tale” in Ancient Russia meant something completely different: “a spoken or written word that has the force of a document” (as a narrower and more specialized term in this sense, it reached the middle of the 19th century: compare with N.V. Gogol in “ Dead souls"Revision tales"). Obviously, with the development of bureaucracy in Russia, documents became unreliable and an ironic meaning developed: “All these are fairy tales!”, “Don’t tell me fairy tales”, and even later the word was assigned to the folklore genre.
fairy stories are always fictitious, they are talking about the impossible, incredible, albeit reminiscent of reality. Moreover, this is perhaps the only folklore genre that does not “claim” to be authentic. Neither the storyteller himself nor his listeners believe in the authenticity of fairy tale events and do not try to prove it. The fairy tale is perceived as a deliberate fiction, a play of fantasy. As the proverb says, “a fairy tale is a fold (that is, something not taken from reality, but specially folded. - I.R.), the song is a true story. However, objectively, of course, a fairy tale is related to reality. It reflects, at a generalized level and in a figurative form, life situations and patterns, human characters (even in animal heroes and fantastic creatures) and signs of a particular era.
The famous fairy tale writer of the twentieth century A.I. Nikiforov gave the following definition of a fairy tale: Fairy tales- these are oral stories that exist among the people for the purpose of entertainment, containing events that are unusual in the everyday sense (fantastic, wonderful or worldly) and are distinguished by a special compositional and stylistic construction ”(more precisely: specific poetics. - I.R.).
There are many systematizations of fairy-tale material. Fairy tale scholars have received universal recognition of international indexes of fairy tale plots: Aarne-Thompson-Andreev, Comparative Index of Plots "East Slavic Tale", abbr. SUS, etc. In all serious scientific research and publications of a fairy tale, numbers of plot types are given according to one of these indexes.
There are also several classifications of a fairy tale by genre (if we consider a fairy tale as a kind of folklore) or genre varieties (if we consider it a genre). Domestic folklore and educational practice have long used the not entirely flawless classification proposed by A.N. Afanasyev in the 2nd edition of his classic collection "Folk Russian Tales". According to her, fairy tales about animals, magical and everyday stand out.
Widely distributed and show the greatest similarity among different peoples fairy tales (actually fairy tales, wonderful tales) . Their historical roots lie in primitive mythology and ancient rituals. The wonderful fiction of a fairy tale is by origin connected with the ideas of our distant ancestors about the afterlife (it was they who were embodied in the fabulous fiery or golden "far-away kingdom, faraway state"), with the cult of ancestors, with totemism, that is, belief in the blood connection between man and animal, with faith in transformations, in the supernatural power of words, objects and actions, with magical prohibitions (taboos). The largest Russian fairy tale critic of the 20th century V.Ya. Propp convincingly proved that the plot and composition of the classic fairy tale reflect the primitive rite of initiation - the initiation of young men into adulthood(monograph "Historical roots of a fairy tale"). The rite involved difficult trials, staging temporary death and wanderings of the initiate into another world, his familiarization with the secrets of the tribe and returning to his native place in a new capacity. In another of his world-famous monographs - "The Morphology of a Fairy Tale" - V.Ya. Propp, using the material of the peoples of the world, explores the general patterns of the structure of a fairy tale, reveals 31 mandatory functions of its characters, and thus derives a universal "formula" of a fairy tale.
With the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of patriarchal relations, the miraculous forces in the fairy tale take the side of the socially disadvantaged: the third, younger son, orphans, stepdaughters, etc. The finale of a fairy tale is marked, as a rule, by the triumph of good over evil, the restoration of well-being disturbed at the beginning, and a fair redistribution of benefits.
Animal Tales- a complex fusion of plots, different both in time of origin and in character. By origin, they are associated with myths about the antics of zoomorphic tricksters and with the ideas of totemism. However, in the classical era, fairy tales already break away from these ideas, are told for entertainment and instruction, since the animals in them resemble people. Big role the ancient Indian book "Panchatantra" played in the distribution of plots of fairy tales about animals.
Animals in a fairy tale are NOT allegorical masks (!), behind which various types of people and even specific historical figures are hidden, as in a fable, but fantastic characters who do not lose their animal appearance, but act according to human custom. This is one of the sources of the comic in the tale.
The trickster (a fox in Russian fairy tales) is opposed to a simpleton (a predator - a wolf, a bear, a man, a simpleton animal, such as a hare).
Among fairy tales about animals there is a special group of cumulative (chain-like) fairy tales. The cumulative composition is very ancient, it is based on such laws of mythological logic, already alien to modern thinking, as the laws of participation (see the monograph by L. Levy-Bruhl). In our time, cumulative fairy tales have gone into the repertoire of the smallest (about a turnip, a bun, a tower, a goat with nuts, etc.), and the interest of kids in them is natural.
Household fairy tales they reproduce, it would seem, pictures of everyday life - without the miracles characteristic of a fairy tale and without the comic "masquerade" of a fairy tale about animals. However, they cannot be called realistic: a fairy tale remains a fairy tale and tells about the impossible in real life. The roots of everyday fairy tales, like fairy tales about animals, are associated with myths about tricksters, only in human form. In addition, many plots of everyday fairy tales arose from a rethinking of the plots of a fairy tale - the rejection of the miraculous elements and the idea of dual worlds.
There are two types of everyday fairy tales - anecdotal and novelistic. The plot fund of the tale is very colorful, many plots have repeatedly passed from folklore to literature and back.
The universal types of heroes of an anecdotal household tale are a fool and a jester (read more about this in the works of V.Ya. Propp's student Yu.I. Yudin, in particular his monograph) as "two sides of the same coin." Features of fairy-tale "stupidity" are features of mythological thinking. Differences between a fool's fairy tale and a fairy tale fool.
At one time, the genre separated from the anecdotal tale modern folk joke . The anecdotal tradition is the most alive in modern Russian folklore, however, it has only recently begun to be studied by folklorists, more often interested in culturologists, linguists and specialists in communication theory (for example, see about the anecdote as a speech genre).
Bylina
(the material in this section was kindly provided to us by
folklorist and historian V.G. Smolitsky)
Bylina is an epic song. In ancient times, the verbal text, organized by poetic rhythm and melody, was presented to people as sacred and divine (sacred). Only in this way, in their opinion, it was possible to turn to the gods, from whom they were sure to ask for something, and to people who they wanted to tell something important, significant. All ceremonies were performed to the accompaniment of dancing and singing, and epics that reported about deeds long past were also sung. They told about the ancient heroes-heroes, about their lives and exploits, about significant, grandiose events that the people considered necessary to remember, about people who distinguished themselves by their strength, courage, beauty. In what was sung in epics, the people believed. No wonder the proverb stated: "A fairy tale is a fold, a song is a true story."
The very word "epic" as applied to epic songs was first used only in the middle of the 19th century. So the folklorist I.P. called them. Sakharov, using a quote from The Tale of Igor's Campaign about songs "according to the epics of this time", wishing to emphasize by this that they tell about events that actually took place. The people themselves called these songs "st a rinami", "old-fashioned", emphasizing that they sing about the distant past, about events that took place long before the time these songs themselves arose.
Epics were composed and sung by storytellers and buffoons. Sometimes, among the people, these songs were also called verses, like spiritual verses, which were sung by passerby kaliks - singers about the events of already Christian antiquity. The people did not distinguish between epics and spiritual verses regarding their genre affiliation. The names of the ancient singers Boyan and Mitus, the storytellers of the new time have come down to us: the Urals - Kirill Danilovich (Kirsha Danilov - the 18th century), the Karelian - T.G. Ryabinin and his ancestors, Altai - L.G. Tupitsyn (XIX century), Arkhangelsk - M.D. Krivopolenova (XIX–XX centuries).
One of the most ancient heroes-bogatyrs is Volga, or Volkh who came to us from the distant pagan past. The song tells that he was the son of a woman and a snake. He learned various secret sciences and was able to turn (turn around) himself and turn others into animals and insects. He had a squad, with which he hunted and won battles. Turning into a wolf, Volga drove deer, hares and other animals to his comrades, turning into a pike, he drove any fish, a falcon - any bird. The squad only had to fill the animals, birds and fish "as much as needed." Werewolf helps him in the war. Having galloped to the Indian kingdom, surrounded by an impregnable stone wall, he becomes an ant, in this form he crosses over to the side of the enemy, there he turns into an ermine, gnaws through all enemy weapons: bowstrings, arrows and spears. The next day, his squad in the form of ants also overcomes the wall, then Volga returns her human form and orders:
“Goy, you are a good squad!
Walk through the kingdom of the Indians,
Chop the old and the small
Don't leave the kingdom for seeds.
The winners get rich trophies, and the song draws a picture of the division of military booty. This epic refers to the oldest, when raids were made by some tribes on others. Volga is the only hero who fights for the sake of robbery and personal enrichment. This is the hero of a pagan worldview. The vast majority of epics that have come down to us were created later, already in the Christian period of Russian history. Despite many pre-Christian elements, they already express Christian ideals formulated by Alexander Nevsky: "God is not in power, but in truth." Russian heroes perform feats, always freeing someone, defending themselves or, more often, others from the attacking enemy.
In heroic epics, heroes serve Kyiv prince Vladimir the Red Sun, whose historical prototypes were both Vladimir 1 Svyatoslavich and Vladimir Monomakh. He personifies the supreme power. Bogatyrs from all over Russia come to him: from Ryazan, Rostov the Great, Murom. He commands them, they feast in his mansions, he gives them orders, sends them to exploits. He is free to reward, pardon and punish them. The main heroes of heroic epics are godfathers Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich and Ilya Muromets. Seniority always belongs to Ilya Muromets, an old Cossack, chieftain; Dobrynya Nikitich - podatamanie; the youngest is Alyosha Popovich. But this order was not established immediately. To acquire their finished form, the images of the heroes have traveled a centuries-old path. In terms of their origin, the epics “Dobrynya and the Serpent” and “Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin Zmeevich” are older than the epics about “Ilya Muromets” and, in particular, the epics “Ilya Muromets and the Nightingale the Robber”. Throughout the centuries-old history of the past epic, new works dedicated to these heroes have repeatedly appeared.
The most ancient in origin Nikitich. It is not yet called the Christian name that people are called at baptism, but the folk one, which is based on the Slavic word “good”. In ancient times, this word had a broader meaning than at present, it denoted everything good, kind, honest, decent, and was also synonymous with the word “happiness”. It was a very common name in antiquity, and for a long time it often existed simultaneously with the name according to the Saints. However, there is an assumption that one of the prototypes of the bogatyr Dobrynya was the uncle of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, voivode Dobrynya, an experienced military leader and diplomat participating in many military enterprises of his time. He led the war with the eastern neighbors of Russia, took an active part in the events related to the marriage of Vladimir to the Polotsk princess Rogneda. Dobrynya played an important role in the establishment and strengthening of Christianity in Russia. Bogatyr Dobrynya is the winner of the Serpent Gorynych, in which the features of the enemy of Christianity and the external enemy of the steppe, who constantly attacked Russian lands and captured Russian people, intertwined. Later (in the 15th century) an epic appeared in which Dobrynya, together with the bogatyr Vasily Kazimirovich, forced the Tatar tsar to refuse the “tributes-outputs” that he received from Prince Vladimir. Dobrynya is distinguished by a special "knowledge", he is excellent with the bow, plays chess masterfully, and amazes everyone with the art of the gusler.
The companion and colleague of Ilya Muromets and Dobrynia is Alyosha Popovich. The name of Alyosha Popovich is accompanied by the epithet "young". This hero arrived in Kyiv from Rostov the Great. In many texts, his patronymic is reported - Leontyevich. Saint Leonty is a historical figure. He lived in the 11th century. To him belongs the merit of the baptism of the Rostov land. Leonty arrived from Constantinople to the Kiev Caves Monastery, already a monk. In Rostov the Great, he sought to introduce the Christian faith primarily among the youth. Young Alyosha can be called the spiritual son of the Rostov saint. The main feat of the hero is the victory over the monstrous Tugarin Zmeyevich. Distinctive features"Bold" Alyosha - dexterity, daring, reckless courage and at the same time a special cheerfulness, cunning and enthusiasm. In the fight against mortal enemies, he relies not only on his own strength, but also on his “ingenuity”, cunning, not considering it shameful for himself, if necessary for victory, to go for direct deception.
Ilya Muromets – central figure Russian heroic epic. In this image, the features necessary for an ideal hero in the popular sense are concentrated. It combines physical strength and courage with high moral character. He is a defender of the weak and offended, a supporter of truth and justice; he is alien to the love of money and lust for power, he puts the interests of the fatherland above personal interests. In itself, the name of Ilya could appear in Russia only after her baptism. It is assumed that Elijah has a real historical prototype - Saint Elijah of Muromets, who was huge and strong, and suffered from paralysis in his youth, but was healed (his relics rest in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra). The first feat of the hero is the victory over the "silushka" that besieged the city of Chernihiv, and the semi-mythical creature Nightingale the Robber. In other epics, he fights with the pagan deity the filthy Idol, with Tsar Kalin, guards the state at the border outpost, the heroes of which "stand for the Christian faith, stood for the churches of God, as they stood for honest monasteries", not missing "neither horse nor foot, neither a passer-by nor a passer-by. In each epic about Elijah, we find references to his Christian virtues: protecting the weak, helping orphans, reading "old printed books", the Gospels; repeated appeals to "God the Savior and the Most Holy Theotokos", a reverent attitude towards churches and monasteries. One of the later epics about him - about his healing - tells of a holy miracle: after sitting in jail for thirty-three years, he turned into a mighty hero. In different texts of the epic, this miracle was performed by various characters: passerby Kaliki, Nicholas the Wonderworker, or Jesus Christ himself. The meaning of Elijah's healing lies in the fact that the heroism is "written for his family." His parents explain this miracle to him like this:
When you were with us sick, unwell,
We talked a lot about you (that is, we made Christian vows. - I.R.).
When you ride across a clean field,
Do not shed human blood in vain.
Stand then for the faith for the baptized,
For you monasteries for the most honored,
For you churches for God.
Cycles of epics dedicated to these heroes have evolved over many centuries. different eras contributed to the creation and development of images of heroes and their opponents. In the epics "Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin Zmeyevich", "Ilya Muromets and the filthy Idolish", "Ilya Muromets and Kalin-Tsar" and other images of the opponents of the heroes carried the features of the Golden Horde governors who behaved like winners in the Russian principalities, neglecting the customs local population:
They carry Tugarin Zmeyevich
On that board is red gold
Twelve mighty heroes
Put in a bigger place...
And Tugarin Zmeyevich eats dishonest bread ...
Epics brought up the patriotic feeling of the people. The epic Dobrynya Nikitich and Vasily Kazimirovich reflected the final liberation of the Russian state from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
In addition to the heroic theme in epics, the social theme is widely represented. They describe the opposition of the peasant to the prince (“Volga and Mikula”), the conflicts of the bogatyrs with the “thick-bellied” boyars (“Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich”), with Prince Vladimir (“Sukhman”, “Danilo Lovchanin”), the clash of the goli of the tavern with the princely power (“The Revolt of Ilya Muromets”), contradictions between people of different social position("Hoten Bludovich").
In some epics, the action takes place not in Kyiv, but in Novgorod (Novgorod cycle). They tell about the life and customs of the feudal-merchant republic: about the importance of trade in its life, about feasts-gathering "nikolshchina", about fist fights, about social contradictions. One of the heroes of these epics is a gusler, and then a merchant Sadko he argued with "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" that he would buy up all the goods available in the city. In the epic dedicated to him, there are many mythological elements dating back to pagan times: Sadko gets to the sea king and, by playing the harp, makes him dance, which caused a storm to rise on the sea. Another hero of this series Vasily Buslaevich- a fist fighter who almost killed his mother in the heat of battle. A freethinker who does not believe "neither in a dream nor in a choh", he violates all the traditional commandments and dies as a result.
Among the epics special group the so-called "buffoons" - works of a satirical and humorous nature: "Fables", "Birds", "About the Big Bull", etc. Among them, the most significant is "Vavila and buffoons", in which itinerant artists are glorified, "merry s they are not simple people, ”possessing a special miraculous power.
In the 15th-16th centuries, epics appeared, the actions of which take place in Moscow (“Ivan the Terrible and the Son”, “Kostryuk”, etc.), but these works, while still retaining many features of the poetics of the past, gravitate towards another genre - historical songs.
In the content of any epic there are historical elements that reflect real events, and at the same time "wandering" plots and motifs that have already been found in other works, in other genres, in other times and among other peoples. Subsequently, many plot details are forgotten, they receive a different explanation depending on changes in real life conditions. But the work as a whole will live as long as its composition remains, expressed in its specific content. In most epics, there is one hero in the center, who is opposed by one opponent. In martial arts, the hero always wins, although, as a rule, at the beginning it seems that an enemy who is larger than the hero and possesses miraculous abilities should win; this is how the “preliminary underestimation of the hero” occurs, which is characteristic of past poetics.
One of the main compositional devices of the epic is the trinity of the narrative: the hero makes three trips, addresses the enemy with a question three times, three comrades set off on the journey, the harpman plays three times on the shore of the lake, etc.
The epic begins with the "beginning", which indicates the place and time of action. It usually describes a feast - at Prince Vladimir in Kyiv or Novgorod, in a clubhouse-Nikolshchina.
In the capital city in Kyiv,
What is the affectionate sir-Prince Vladimir
There was a feast - an honorable feast,
There was a dining room - an honorary table,
To many princes with boyars
And on the mighty Russian heroes.
The epic ends with an “exodus”: “The old thing, then the deed.”
The epic text is replete with constant epithets (“good fellow”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “green grass”). There are many common places in epics. So, from the epic to the epic, the description of the saddle of the horse by the hero is repeated:
Ah, here is the old Cossack and Ilya Muromets
He began to saddle the good horse here;
He puts a sweatshirt on the horse,
And he puts felt on the sweatshirt,
Potnichek he put, but silky,
And on the sweatshirt he put a sweatshirt,
He put Cherkassy on the undershirt of the saddle ...
... And he put bulatnias on the stepladders,
Buckles lined with red gold
Yes, not for beauty-pleasure,
For the sake of the fortress, everything is heroic.
Such detailed descriptions, enumerations and numerous repetitions that slow down the plot action are called retardation. The poetics of the epic reveals the high skill, richness and variety of artistic poetic means, and one of the most common is hyperbole. The strength of the hero is hyperbolic: he can uproot an oak tree and beat an entire army with it; but the description of the enemy is also hyperbolic, for example, Idolishche or Tugarin, who eat a whole bull at once.
In Ancient Russia, there was a strict genre distinction: works spoken orally (songs, fairy tales, proverbs) were not specially recorded; there were written genres for this: books Holy Scripture, sermons, lives of saints and other books related to the Orthodox religion, as well as chronicles. Therefore, there were no records of folklore as such in antiquity. The first lists of proverbs and songs appear only in the 16th-17th centuries, and then they were made by foreigners who studied the Russian language. In the 17th-18th centuries, in the Russian manuscript tradition, along with prose original and translated works, "Tales", "Tales", "Histories" appear, which are based on a prose retelling of epics. For the first time songs about heroes were published in early XIX century, when in 1804 the book "Ancient Russian Poems" was published. It was republished in a more complete form in 1818 and was called "Ancient Russian poems collected by Kirsha Danilov." It has now been established that Kirill Danilovich is a genuine historical person; he lived and sang songs in the Urals, at the factories of the Demidovs. Throughout the first half of XIX in. this book was the only printed collection that included songs about heroes. Over time, it became desktop at A.S. Pushkin, who only through it could get acquainted with many past songs.
In the middle of the first half of the XIX century. small publications of epics began to appear in the periodical press, made at the same time by various collectors: the priest E.A. Favorsky (the village of Pavlovo on the Oka), S.I. Gulyaev, who recorded songs in Altai (Barnaul) with the storyteller Leonty Gavrilovich Tupitsyn, and others. a large number epics in Karelia, made by P.N. Rybnikov, a student from Kharkov, who was exiled to Petrozavodsk and served as an official there. During 1861-1867, four volumes of “Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov”, of which three were completely devoted to epics. Rybnikov is credited with the discovery of the wonderful storyteller of epics Trofim Grigoryevich Ryabinin. Following Rybnikov, the Slavic scholar A.F. went to Karelia. Hilferding, who made re-recordings of songs already published by Rybnikov and new ones. So science became aware that the tradition of byleva song continues to live. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, expeditions were carried out to other remote regions of Russia and, as a rule, new centers of singing epics were found on the outskirts of the state: on the White Sea - A.V. Markov (narrators - the Kryukov family, etc.), in the Arkhangelsk province - A.D. Grigoriev (narrator Maria Dmitrievna Krivopolenova), on the Pechora - N.E. Onchukov, in Chukotka - V.G. Bogoraz, among the Don Cossacks - A.M. Listopadov.
In the XX century. repeated expeditions were carried out in the footsteps of already known collectors. At present, the existence of epics has almost completely ceased.
High artistry, depth of content, freshness of images of epics constantly attracted the attention of Russian writers, composers, artists, filmmakers, including A.S. Pushkin, P.I. Tchaikovsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, I.E. Repin, V.M. Vasnetsov, M.A. Vrubel, K. Vasiliev and others.
Children's folklore:
Children's folklore is a special area of folk culture, which plays an important role in the life of every person and the whole nation. The works of children's folklore help the formation and development of the personality of each newly born person, the development of the cultural wealth of previous generations, which ensures the continuity and preservation of the spiritual image of the people. Children's folklore gives the child verbal and poetic means developed by time, necessary for him to express in an artistic form a special, childish vision of the world, generated by age-related mental characteristics. These features and the resulting forms of interaction with the outside world, with peers and adults change extremely strongly as the child develops from birth to adolescence. Therefore, the region is so rich, peculiar and diverse folk art associated with the world of childhood.
There are two age groups of children's folklore. The first one is creativity of adults intended for children. A significant part of it is called the poetry of nurturing, or in other words, maternal poetry, since the sphere of infancy is predominantly a female, maternal sphere of communication with a child. This includes lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, jokes. Adults address kids and fairy tales, which are clearly felt as specifically "children's", and such a type of verbal-poetic communication as tiresome fairy tales. Each of the genres of the first age group of children's folklore performs its own special function, which is absolutely necessary in order to raise a baby physically and mentally healthy. Due to the characteristics of the age for the first age group, poetic genres and fiction special type.
The second group of children's folklore is actually children's folk art created and transmitted directly from one child generation to another. The life of every child is extraordinarily intense and varied. With its most diverse aspects, interests, needs, it is connected with the same intense and varied life of peers, adolescents, adults. According to a special purpose in the life of children who have left infancy, genre cycles are determined within children's folklore proper: a children's folk calendar; children's play folklore; children's satire, everyday and legal sentences; "terrible" and mysterious in the folklore of children; children's humorous folklore; children's riddles. Each of these cycles, as well as each genre included in it, in a special way builds the most successful interpersonal communication of children among themselves, communication of different children's generations with each other, ensures intergenerational continuity of cultural life stereotypes. They are different in specific historical periods in the life of a people, different in its different social strata, and at the same time relatively stable in every nation. Actually children's folklore is closely connected with folk and professional creativity of adults.
The most important artistic features characteristic of folk children's oral and poetic creativity are rhythm; personification as the leading poetic device of creativity, the presence of humanoid, anthropomorphic characters; special compositions of works and specific comicality, the forms of which vary significantly depending on the age of the child.
Despite significant social, cultural and historical changes in the history of the people and in the life of modern society, the real and artistic world of childhood is characterized by certain general patterns, certain general properties specific to children's culture as a phenomenon that is different from the culture of adults and at the same time connected with it by strong ties. This ensures, on the one hand, continuity in the culture of the people; on the other hand, it brings new colors to it. Children's folklore is a living, dynamic, developing phenomenon.
The modern baby and his young mother, no less than in the distant past, need subtle ways to build their relationship with lulling, bathing, first physical exercises and games. A grown-up child - a preschooler, a schoolchild - just like his age-old peer, needs special forms of relationships accepted by the entire children's team in the game, in personal self-affirmation among comrades, adolescents, adults, in the regulation and self-regulation of their emotions, desires, impulses . All these emotional, aesthetic, ethical, social needs in our time give rise to ever-living forms of children's culture - modern children's folklore. It can outwardly differ significantly from the forms of traditional children's oral and poetic creativity. But its main, cardinal laws are still stable, universal and inevitable, just as the path of growth from childhood to adulthood is stable and inevitable for each person. And children's culture helps to go this way, to mark its significant milestones in inner world personality, give external ways to consolidate the experience of children's life, build a bridge between the individual and society, people, native language, traditional forms life, values of national culture.
Folklore and literature
Folklore and literature as two areas of culture, two types of creativity, two artistic systems. common and different between them. Illegal identification. The history of the "inclusion" of folklore in the field of literary disciplines, the positive and negative consequences of this (according to B.N. Putilov). The absence of the author, the variability of folklore. Narrow and broad understanding of the oral nature of folklore. Direct (contact) method of communication. Examples of the oral nature of texts in written and electronic modes of transmission. Inclusiveness as a property of folklore, but not literature.
In the cultural space of the nation, both systems function, constantly mutually influencing and interacting. Triangle: myth-folklore-literature. Multidirectional connections: the influence of myth and folklore on literature and the influence of literature on folklore. The first is not reduced to the mythopoetics and folklorism of literature (there is still a global influence in the emergence of literature, the enrichment of the literary language due to folklore, etc.), and the second is not reduced to the folklorization of literary works (there is also the influence of literary poetics, for example, the appearance of rhyme in folk lyrics , genres of literary or, more broadly, of book origin, parody of literary sources, literary allusions in folklore texts, etc.).
The phenomenon of folklore-literary "boomerang": folklore-literature-folklore (folklorism + folklorization). "Zone of intersection" (common field) of folklore and literature: "naive" literature, amateur creativity, oral stories-memoirs in the form of memorabilia.
Folklorism is a term proposed by the French folklorist of the 19th century. P. Sebilo to denote hobbies and folklore.
In Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, folklorism was studied within the framework of the concepts of "common people" and "nationality". Actually, the study of the relationship between the work of writers and folk poetry was outlined at the end of the 19th century. The first steps in this direction were the works of V. Peretz on folk songs (“Modern Russian folk song”, 1891), etc. However, the writer’s appeal to folklore was often understood only as his additional “ethnographic” activity (such was, for example, the title of Vs. Miller’s work “A.S. Pushkin as a poet-ethnographer” in 1899). In Russian folklore since the 1930s. (M.K. Azadovsky and others) folklorism was understood as the use of folklore in art, journalism, etc. In Soviet times, the problem of interaction between literature and folklore often boiled down to identifying elements of oral folk poetry in works. Particularly widespread and international recognition the term was received from the mid-1960s, mainly to refer to "secondary", "non-authentic" folklore phenomena (reproduction of folklore on stage, at festivals, in amateur performances, etc.). In the 70s - 80s. In the 20th century, the problem of interaction between literature and folklore rose to a qualitatively new level. The main attention of researchers during this period was directed to determining the type of folklorism, the nature of the connections, the logic of relations between literature and folklore in different socio-historical eras and at different ideological and aesthetic levels.
The classification of fairy tales. Characteristic features of each species
According to the tradition that has developed in literary criticism, fairy tales are divided into three groups:
stories about animals
fairy tales
everyday fairy tales
A) Animal stories
The Russian repertoire contains about 50 stories about animals.
There are several thematic groups:
Tales of wild animals
Wild and domestic animals
Pets
Man and wild animals.
This type of fairy tale differs from others in that animals act in fairy tales.
Their features are shown, but the features of a person are conditionally implied.
Animals usually do what people do, but in these fairy tales, animals are somewhat like humans, and in some ways they are not.
Here the animals speak human language.
The main task of these tales is to ridicule bad traits character, actions and cause compassion for the weak, offended.
Animal tales are included in the reading books. Most of all children are interested in the story itself.
The most elementary and at the same time the most important ideas - about the mind and stupidity, about cunning and straightforwardness, about good and evil, about heroism and cowardice - fall into the mind and determine the norms of behavior for the child.
Children's fairy tales about animals touch upon social and ethical issues in an interpretation accessible to children's perception.
In fairy tales about animals, observations, excursions, illustrations, and cinema are important. You need to learn how to write a characterization. (Remember in which fairy tales and how animals are shown).
B) Fairy tales.
A fairy tale is a work of art with a clearly expressed idea of man's victory over the dark forces of evil.
Children of primary school age like a fairy tale.
They are attracted by the development of action, coupled with the struggle of light and dark forces, and wonderful invention.
In these fairy tales, there are two groups of heroes: good and evil. Good usually triumphs over evil.
Fairy tales should cause admiration for good heroes and condemnation of villains. They express confidence in the triumph of good.
In every fairy tale, the heroes resort to the help of objects or living beings that have magical powers.
Fairy tales are united by magic: transformations.
The dream of the people, ingenuity, talent, skill, diligence are shown.
C) Household stories.
Everyday tales talk about the attitude of social classes. Exposing the hypocrisy of the ruling classes is the main feature of everyday fairy tales. These fairy tales differ from fairy tales in that the fiction in them does not have a pronounced supernatural character.
Fairy tales talk about the characters of people, the habits of animals.
The action of the positive hero and his enemy in the everyday fairy tale takes place in the same time and space, is perceived by the listener as an everyday reality.
The heroes of everyday fairy tales: the landowner, the king-prince, the khan are greedy and indifferent people, loafers and egoists. They are opposed by experienced soldiers, poor laborers - dexterous, courageous and intelligent people. They win, and sometimes magical items help them in victory.
Everyday fairy tales have a great educational and cognitive value. The children learn about the history of the people, their way of life. These tales help the moral education of students, as they convey folk wisdom.
Thus, a fairy tale is a genre of oral folk art; fiction of a fantastic, adventure or everyday nature.
Despite the classification of fairy tales, each of them carries a huge educational and cognitive value for the child.
Pupils from the first grade get acquainted with oral folk art, including fairy tales
The task of the teacher is to bring folk wisdom to the mind of the child.
"Artistic features of fairy tales"
Fairy tales, especially fairy tales, are extraordinarily poetic. The Russian fairy tale is distinguished by rhythm, melodiousness, unhurried narration. Among the features of the structure of a fairy tale, there are hint, beginning and ending.
1) A saying (an introduction to a fairy tale in the form of a joke, a proverb, usually not related to the content - "In a certain kingdom, in a certain state, there lived a white-beard, put a watermelon on his head, a cucumber on his nose and built a palace. This is not a fairy tale, a saying , the fairy tale will be ahead")
2) Beginning (the traditional beginning of a fairy tale - "Once upon a time there was an old man with an old woman", "In a certain kingdom, in a certain state"
3) Ending (the final part of the tale - "That's the end of the tale, and whoever listened - well done)
Often found in fairy tales are such artistic details as repetitions of words that are close in meaning, traditional turns of speech, constant epithets.
1) name repetitions of words (once upon a time, unexpectedly, unexpectedly);
2) give examples of turns of speech (neither to say in a fairy tale, nor to describe with a pen; soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the work is done);
3) permanent epithets (beautiful girl, living water, good fellow).
Fable
A fable is one of the forms of the epic genre, or a type of epic poetry.
Attention to the fable at school is due to a number of its merits.
1. The fable contains great opportunities for the moral education of students. Each fable is a well-drawn scene from life, on the example of which the writer teaches the wisdom of the people, simply and vividly talking about various human vices. The positive direction of this or that judgment is always present in the fable and, with properly organized class work, is well understood by schoolchildren.
2. Laconism, picturesqueness and expressiveness of descriptions, accuracy and nationality of the language give extremely much for the development of thinking and speech of students. The size of a fable usually does not exceed 20-30 lines, but in terms of content it is a play with its own plot, climax and denouement. For students, a fable is a wonderful example of an extremely brief in form and capacious in content description of a case. The figurative expressions from the fable, which have become proverbs over time, attract equally both the depth of the thought contained in them and the brightness of its expression.
The technique of working on a fable is determined by its specificity as a type of work of art. Such essential features of the fable as the presence of morality (moralizing) and allegory (allegory) are singled out. In fables, animals are often the characters, but this feature does not act as a mandatory feature (people can also be characters in a fable). Also not obligatory for a fable is a poetic form.
One of the central issues in the analysis of the fable in grades 2-4 is related to the disclosure of morality and allegory. When to work on the moral of a fable: before a special analysis of its specific content or after?
In the methodology, it is traditionally considered appropriate to start working on the text of the fable with the disclosure of its specific content. This is followed by a clarification of the allegorical meaning (who is meant by the characters in the fable) and, finally, morality is considered.
N.P. Kanonykin and N.A. Shcherbakov is recommended not to read the moral of the fable until the students understand the content of a particular part of the fable, until the children understand the characteristics of the characters, do not transfer " characteristic features animals depicted in fables into the real human environment.
A different way of working on a fable is described by L.V. Zankov. According to L.V. Zankov, it is more expedient immediately after reading the fable, without any preliminary conversation, to offer students the question: “What is the main idea of the fable?” Without resorting to an analysis of the text of the fable, students speak out about its main idea, after which they are given a second question: “What is the moral of the fable?”
In this approach, L.V. Zankov's analysis of the fable goes from the main idea to morality and to specific content.
The success of the work on the fable is determined by a number of conditions. It is important in the process of analyzing the fable to help the student vividly imagine the development of the action, to vividly perceive the images. Therefore, it is advisable to conduct with students word drawing, and at the final stage of the work - reading in faces. It is necessary to develop students' attention to every detail of the environment in which the characters act, to every stroke of their appearance.
The individual existence of artistic creativity is a genre - a historically emerging type literary work. One of the most difficult to identify and identify common typical features is the fairy tale genre.
The concept of "fairy tale" is the subject of numerous scientific research and disputes. For a long time, scientists did not try to define a fairy tale and, accordingly, did not give its genre features. So, for example, there is no definition of the concept and essence of a fairy tale in the works of such major domestic researchers of folklore genres as P.V. Vladimirov, A.N. Pypin.
V.Ya. Propp notes that in most European languages there is no designation for this type of folk art, so a variety of words are used. Only in two European languages - Russian and German - there are special words for a fairy tale: "fairy tale" and "Märchen". In Latin, the word "fairy tale" is transmitted using the word fabula, which has many other additional meanings: conversation, gossip, subject of conversation, etc. (“plot” in literary criticism - “plot, subject of narration”), as well as a story, including a fairy tale and a fable. The French word for fairy tale is "story".
Based on their meanings of words, which in different languages denoted "fairy tale", we can draw several conclusions:
- 1. The fairy tale is recognized as a narrative genre
- 2. A fairy tale is considered fiction
- 3. The purpose of the fairy tale is to entertain listeners
One of the first scientific definitions of a fairy tale was given by European researchers J. Bolte and G. Polivka. Its meaning boils down to this: a fairy tale is a story based on poetic fantasy, especially from the magical world, a story not connected with the conditions of real life, which in all walks of life listen with pleasure, even if they find it incredible or unreliable.
However, V. Propp finds a number of inaccuracies and weaknesses in this definition. First, the definition of a fairy tale as "a story based on poetic fantasy" is too broad. Any literary and artistic work is based on poetic fantasy. Secondly, the words "especially from the magical world" exclude from this definition all non-magical tales (about animals, short stories). Propp also did not agree that the fairy tale "is not connected with the conditions of real life." His opinion is shared by many other researchers who believe that a fairy tale is designed to reflect reality, convey to listeners and readers some generalized idea that is closely related to life. Finally, the formula that a fairy tale is aesthetically pleasing, even if listeners “find it incredible or unreliable,” is fundamentally wrong, since a fairy tale is always considered fictional. However, J. Bolte and G. Polivka are right in defining a fairy tale in terms of the closest genus, that is, through a story, narration in general.
Based on the foregoing, we will make an attempt to formulate the following definition: a fairy tale is one of the oldest types of folk literature, a narrative (usually prosaic) about fictional, often fantastic events.
Speaking about the genre, it is important to pay special attention to the folk tale. By a folk tale we mean "one of the main genres of oral folk art, an epic, mostly prose work of art of a magical, adventurous or everyday nature with a fantasy setting"
According to V.Ya. Propp, a fairy tale is determined, first of all, by its artistic form. “Each genre has a special inherent to it, and in some cases only to it, artistry. The totality of historically established artistic techniques can be called poetics. Based on this, it turns out the most general definition: "a fairy tale is a story that differs from all other types of narration by the specificity of its poetics."
However, this definition requires further additions. The largest collector and researcher of the fairy tale A.I. Nikiforov gave this genre the following definition: “Fairy tales are oral stories that exist among the people for the purpose of entertainment, containing events that are unusual in the everyday sense (fantastic, wonderful or worldly) and are distinguished by a special compositional and stylistic construction”, “a work with a fantastic plot, conventionally fantastic figurativeness, a stable plot-compositional structure, a listener-oriented form of narration.
There are a number of features characteristic of a folk tale:
1) Variability and predetermined plot
Speaking about the plot structure of folk tales, in my opinion, it is necessary to dwell on the patterns of construction of folklore fairy tales, indicated by V.Ya. Propp. Based on the understanding of the plot as a complex of motives or repetitive elements - the functions of the characters, V.Ya. Propp singled out thirty-one functions of characters, the combination of which determines the structure of any fairy tale. In his work “The Morphology of a Fairy Tale”, V. Propp notes that fairy tales have one feature - the components of one fairy tale can be placed in another fairy tale without any change. Thus, the plots of folk tales are traditional and to some extent given. It is important to note that this led to the variability of the plots: the core of the plot remained untouched, but was only supplemented by individual details.
2) Conscious installation on fiction
People initially understand the fairy tale as fiction. “Fairy tales are collectively created and traditionally preserved by the people oral prose artistic narratives of such real content that, of necessity, requires the use of methods of implausible depiction of reality. They are not repeated in any other genre of folklore,” V.P. Anikin.
The fact that they do not believe in the reality of the events described in the fairy tale was also noticed by V.G. Belinsky, who, comparing an epic and a fairy tale, wrote: “At the basis of a fairy tale, a back thought is always noticeable, it is noticeable that the narrator himself does not believe what he is telling, and internally laughs at his own story.” Aksakov, who made an attempt to separate the fairy tale from other types of folklore more than a hundred years ago, wrote that the focus on conscious fiction affects both the content of fairy tales, the depiction of the scene in them, and the characters of the characters.
In this way, feature fairy tales - in her fiction, in the fact that she is served by a storyteller and is perceived by his listeners, first of all, as a poetic fiction, as a play of fantasy. The role of poetic fiction in a fairy tale, its function, its quality determine its main genre features.
3) Techniques of poetics
The special techniques of poetics are, first of all, initial and final formulas, trinity, gradation, absence detailed descriptions nature, spiritual life of heroes and so on. According to V.Ya. Propp, "each genre has a special inherent to it, and in some cases only to it, artistry." Folklore tales usually begin with traditional initial formulas “once upon a time”: “Once upon a time there was a little peasant boy…”; “Once upon a time there was a king…”; "In a certain kingdom, in a certain state, a long-awaited heir was born in the royal family ...". Folk tales are most often a happy ending and no less traditional final formula, testifying to the well-being of the heroes: “They played a wedding here, and they got half the kingdom in addition”; “They lived happily ever after, and died on the same day…”.
The final formulas sometimes reveal a claim to the authenticity of what is happening: "And I was there, drinking honey-beer ...".
In folk tales, the number three "dominates": "Once upon a time there was a woman, and she had three sons ...". "One king had three daughters." Most often, there are three children in the family, they have to overcome three trials, accomplish three feats (in literary criticism, this technique is usually called a threefold repetition, with the help of which an increase in tension is transmitted or attention is focused on the main character). Along with trinity, gradation is also observed. Each new test, each new feat is more difficult, and each treasure is more precious than the previous one; and if the hero first enters a forest of silver, then the road leads him to a forest of gold, and finally to a forest of precious stones.
4) Traditional characters
In folklore tales, only a small number of recurring heroes function: kings, princes, princesses, magic birds, giants, artisans, and so on. The specificity of folklore characters lies in their generalized, abstracted image, the constancy of their functions and the brevity of their characteristics.
5) Uncertainty of fairy space and time
In folk tales, there are almost no indications of the time and place, when and where the action takes place. Everything is very vague: “Once upon a time there was a man who had three sons. And when they grew up, matured ... ". Sometimes the time and place are specified in a kind of nebulous, vague form: "And they live there in joy from day to day, west of the sun, east of the moon in the very wind." If the place of action is indicated, then this is most often the native village, or "white light", or a foreign state.
With the help of clichéd expressions used in the opening, the folk tale emphasizes its timeless character: “it etait une fjis”; "es war einmal"; "once…".
5) Sociality, the eternal struggle against evil, truth and untruth.
The images of the positive hero, his beloved, and their helpers make up single system expressing people's ideals and dreams. This world is opposed to the evil of life. Good in a fairy tale always triumphs over evil.
All these features will be continued and developed by the literary tale.
The origin of the genre of a literary fairy tale is the result of the process of interaction between folklore and literature, penetration into the world of a folk tale, into its artistic system of elements of literary creativity.
A literary fairy tale is a genre already known in antiquity. The tale is recognizable in the touching love of Cupid and Psyche, told by Apuleius in the second century AD in the novel The Golden Ass. This is a characteristic folklore beginning, as well as a motif of magical trials. But all the traditionally folk-tale moves are subject to the individual author's artistic intention - to create irony (for example, the Olympic gods are endowed with the features of "mere mortals", they argue and refer to Roman criminal law).
And yet, the writers of the late Italian Renaissance are considered to be the true initiators of the literary fairy tale genre. The motifs of folk tales were used by J. Straparola (short stories "Pleasant Nights"). Researchers call him partly a follower of G. Boccaccio, but Straparola goes further, while borrowing motifs for his short stories and fairy tales in ancient Indian narrative prose, or creating them on his own.
The tradition of the literary fairy tale in the seventeenth century is continued by the Neapolitan J. Basile. His "Tale of Tales" (or "Pentameron") absorbed at the same time a rich folk fairy-tale tradition, literary motifs, as well as the flavor of grace and irony that are inherent in Basile's creative style.
A few decades later, “The Tales of My Mother Goose, or Stories and Tales of Bygone Times with Instructions” (1697) were published, authored by the French writer C. Perrault. C. Perrault belongs to the baroque direction, hence the features of the literary fairy tales he created: gallantry, grace, moralizing and pretentiousness. In search of sources for his works, the author abandons ancient stories and turns to folklore. He was looking for new content and new forms of art. Based on the folk tradition, Perrault creatively approached the folklore plot, introduced individual details into its development, author's digressions, reflecting the customs and mores of contemporary reality. In literary tales, Ch. Perrault reflected a wonderful literary language, vivid descriptions, details and images, even the accuracy of time references.
The courtly age was replaced by times that did not really favor a fairy tale. It was an era of discovery and knowledge, which was called the Age of Enlightenment. Enlighteners saw virtue in diligence and learning, rationality in the life of nature, and the undoubted benefit of art in the moral education of mankind. inspired by discoveries natural sciences, the enlighteners decided that everything can be explained in terms of practical meaning. Many researchers call this period the "crisis of the genre" of the literary fairy tale.
In Rococo literature, the fairy tale becomes an autonomous literary genre. Here, fairy tales are designed in a different, not folklore, but "literary" style. Rococo fairy tales are evaluated as a court-aristocratic art, they analyze and reflect the mores and psychology of contemporary society, demonstrate the duality of human nature, affirm the natural imperfection of man. The style of the Rococo fairy tale is "elegantly whimsical metonymic comparisons and emphasized fragmentation and ornamentality, ... a virtuoso and graceful game."
The circle of writers working in line with the rocaille literary tale is quite wide. First of all, this is K.P. Crebillon, Catherine Bernard, Countess d "Onua, Charlotte Rosa Colon Delafors, Countess de Mura, Jean de Preshak and others. A. France called this period the "golden age" of conte "(fairy tales) and short stories.
The true flourishing of the literary fairy tale reaches in the era of romanticism, when the fairy tale genre became the basis of the literature of this period.
The literary tales of the romantics are characterized by a combination of magical, fantastic, ghostly and mystical with modern reality. Relevant are the social issues of contemporary them (romantics) society. Romantics sought to establish the element of the miraculous, which would oppose the monotony of everyday life and romanticism.
Literary tales of this period are close to folk tradition. For example, in L. Tiek's fairy tales and plays, folklore elements are combined with everyday family chronicles. Hoffmann's fairy tales, where links with folklore are the least indirect, are based on a combination of the real and the unreal. For the first time, the writer transfers the scene of fairy tales, night scenes and other fantastic and mystical visions to the present, to the real world.
Hans Christian (or Hans Christian) Andersen continues the tradition of the romantics Tieck, Hoffmann and others. His work completes the period of European classical romanticism. Andersen's literary tale relies not only on a folk tale, but also on legends, beliefs, proverbs, and various literary sources. It has elements of the novel, lyrics, drama and short stories. Expanding the fairy tale, bringing it closer to the real world, Andersen saturates it with enormous vital material to such an extent that he himself begins to doubt whether it remains a fairy tale. From 1858 to 187, numerous editions of the collection New Tales and Stories appeared. The title of the collection testified that the writer did not abandon the fairy tale genre. The concept of "history" also did not mean radical tales of his tales from one state to another. Andersen's "History", on the one hand, is not a fairy tale in the usual sense of the word. There are no supernatural miraculous events that have almost nothing to do with reality, and mysterious, magical characters. On the other hand, Andersen's "story" is a kind of fairy tale, but with a special, original, fantastic fantasy inherent only to them.
The most famous and prolific storyteller in France in the third quarter of the nineteenth century is considered to be Edouard René Laboulet de Lefebvre. Laboulet created almost all of his tales on a folk basis, but he reworked plots and images in such a vivid and original way that in the end it was difficult to recognize the folklore source. The sources for the writer were not only fairy tales from all regions of France, but also Spanish, German, Finnish, and Czech fairy tales. In addition, in the tales of the writer Labule, we can observe both satire and humor (edifying ridicule and everyday humor).
The evolution of the genre does not stop there. Romanticism is replaced by aestheticism. Fairy tales by O. Wilde and fairy tale short stories by T. Gauthier, oriented towards the principle of the “ideal”, an aesthetic model, appear.
Thus, the tales of O. Wilde, in which the action takes place in magical lands or past centuries are called "fairy tales of the future." "Tales of the Future" include a kind of universal cosmic worldview. Wilde himself drew a conclusion that preceded the whole stream of twentieth-century philosophy: real, true beauty is impossible without suffering.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the literary fairy tale ceases to be an apology for its era. In the context of the crisis of European culture, moral and religious values, the fairy tale is undergoing transformation. The form of consciousness and the condition for overcoming the crisis is the conscious rejection of reason and rational orientation. The fairy-tale reality created in a magical literary fairy tale exists according to its own laws, the way of being of which is the process of co-creation, aesthetic experiences.
In the nineteenth century, the tendency to lose the "purity" of the genre intensified, to turn the fairy tale into a synthetic genre, combining components of different genres. A literary fairy tale takes shape as an original author's artistic system, fundamentally different from folklore and revealing only distant connections and commonality of the main genre features with it.
During the period of romanticism, many genres were created and developed. In France, for example, the so-called confessional prose was widespread - novels that contain the self-disclosure of the hero. In lyrical genres, the most important artistic discovery was the romantic poem, which was almost the leading genre of romanticism, along with the short story. The literary fairy tale has also become widespread in literature.
The most significant representatives of this genre were the Countess de Segur, de Lefebvre and George Sand in France, Novalis, Brentano, Hauff, Hoffmann in Germany.
The literary fairy tale owes its origin to the folklore fairy tale, but in many respects it fundamentally differs from it. A significant difference between a literary fairy tale and a folk tale lies in the constant presence of a narrator - an intermediary between the world of this author's fairy tale and its creator.
The narrator is the individual actors (in the fairy tales of G.Kh. Andersen, for example, this is the merchant's son, Ole Lukoye); wind, air, birds, street lamp and so on. Sometimes the storyteller speaks in his own name. In some fairy tales, the author and the narrator merge into one, are identified, and this gives a shade of authenticity to what is happening.
According to N.A. The basket, the content, the idea of a literary fairy tale are corrected not only by the worldview of the author, but also by a complex of philosophical and aesthetic problems of the era in which it was created. Its plot and composition have no options and, unlike a folk tale, are rigidly fixed. For example, in the literary tales of romantics, traditional initial and final formulas are practically absent.
In a literary fairy tale, one of the main tasks of the author is to convey his idea to readers, show his vision of the world and, to some extent, influence readers.
Thus, a literary fairy tale is a fairy tale of its time, which is inextricably linked with socio-historical events and literary and aesthetic trends. As the fruit of the labors of a certain person belonging to a certain time, a literary fairy tale carries within itself ideas contemporary to this era, reflects contemporary social relations.
Due to the individualization of the speech of the heroes, their naming and other signs, the transformation of fairy-tale types into characters takes place. In addition, the literary fairy tale is distinguished by the subtlest psychological shades. The characters of a literary fairy tale are individual and artistically differentiated, and their relationships with each other are often distinguished by complex psychological connections. The literary fairy tale reflects the individualization of the fairy tale hero.
To understand the image of the hero in both literary and folk tales, portrait and psychological characteristics heroes.
A literary fairy tale often includes components of the outside world - natural phenomena, things and objects, elements of everyday life, scientific and technological achievements, historical events and characters, various realities and so on. Thanks to all of the above, the literary tale has a broadly cognitive character. Her characters are not nameless; sometimes it contains geographical names that actually exist.
Folklorists and literary scholars note that there is still no unambiguous definition and consensus, even about what should be considered a literary tale: a work that satisfies the ideological and aesthetic principles of a folk tale; a prose or poetic work that actively uses elements of folklore poetics (not necessarily fabulous, it can be a legend, an epic, and so on); any work in which a happy ending and an unrealistic (with elements of fantasy) plot or fairy tale characters are mentioned; an author's work, for which an exact indication of a folklore and fairy tale source is possible, or something else.
Y. Yarmysh defines a literary fairy tale as “a genre of literary work in which moral, ethical and aesthetic problems are solved in a magical-fantastic or allegorical development of events, and, as a rule, in original plots and images in prose, poetry or drama.” This interpretation of the genre does not seem to be entirely accurate, since allegory is also characteristic of the fable and the story, and the fantastic beginning is characteristic not only of the fairy tale genre, but also of the ballad and the romantic novel.
FROM. Surat adheres to his own point of view and gives the following definition of a literary fairy tale: it is "a genre that combines the features of individual author's creativity with the use to a greater or lesser extent of some folklore canons - figurative, plot-compositional, stylistic." In my opinion, in this definition one of the main features of a literary fairy tale is reflected, however, “folklore canons” are inherent not only in a literary fairy tale, but also in a song, romance, ballad, tale, fable, story, and so on.
A fairly complete definition of a literary fairy tale was given by L.D. Braude: “A literary fairy tale is an author's artistic prose or poetic work, based either on folklore sources, or invented by the writer himself, but in any case subject to his will; a predominantly fantasy work depicting the wondrous adventures of fictional or traditional fairy tale characters, and in some cases aimed at children; a work in which magic, a miracle plays the role of a plot-forming factor, helps to characterize the characters.
In turn, T.G. Leonova defines the genre of a literary fairy tale as “a narrative work of a small epic form with a fantastic plot, with conditionally fantastic figurativeness, unmotivated miracle and miracles as a given, oriented towards the reader accepting the conventionality; a work that is correlated with a folk tale by a purely individual manifestation of folklorism and differs from it in the author's concept of seeing the world, the ideological and aesthetic tasks of the time and the connection with the writer's artistic method.
Both researchers identify such common features of a literary fairy tale as:
- - author's beginning;
- - a fantastic, wonderful story;
- - correlation with the folk tale.
In the concept of T.G. Leonova, the most significant is the selection of the following features of a literary fairy tale:
- - conditionally fantastic figurativeness;
- - orientation to the reader who accepts the convention;
- - connection with the artistic method of the writer;
- - the author's concept of vision of the world.
Thus, a literary fairy tale is understood as a narrative work of small, medium or large epic form with a fantastic plot, with conditionally fantastic imagery, oriented towards the reader who accepts the conditionality; a work that is correlated with a folk tale by a purely individual manifestation of folklorism and differs from it in the author's concept of seeing the world, the ideological and aesthetic tasks of the time and the connection with the writer's artistic method.
When analyzing fairy tales and conducting lessons on fairy tales, one should take into account the peculiarities of folk tales and literary tales.
Exam: Oral folk art
In the science of folklore, the view of the fairy tale as the totality of all types and forms of oral prose has long been widespread.
Research thought sought to distinguish the fairy tale from other genres of oral prose, and looked for differences between the fairy tales themselves. Fiction, according to Aksakov, influenced the content, the depiction of the place of action in fairy tales, and the characters of the characters.
The main artistic feature of fairy tales is the plot. The plot arose and developed due to the conflict, and the conflict was generated by life, that reality, which did not quite correspond to the people's ideal. At the heart of a fairy tale is always the antithesis between dream and reality. The principle of antithesis has found universal application in fairy tales. Their characters are contrastingly distributed along the poles of good and evil. The main character always appears in a fairy tale, the action unfolds around him. The heroes of fairy tales, like other folklore genres, are distinguished by a wide generalization: these are not characters, but types, carriers of some main quality that defines the image. They are internally static, but this is combined with external dynamism. Fairy-tale characters are revealed primarily in movement, action.
At the same time, the actions of fairy tale characters create the content and composition of a fairy tale. Fairy tales are characterized by a stable repetition of the same type of characters in different works, but only within their genre.
A fairy tale always has a special relationship to reality: fairy tale space and fairy time are not inscribed in real geography and history, the narration turns out to be outside of reality, as it were, which allows poetic fiction to manifest itself to the maximum. At the same time, fairy tales retain life-like plausibility, carry elemental realism, and are filled with truthful everyday details. Truth and fiction are combined in fairy tales.
The telling of fairy tales was carried out in a special way, artistic language, Traditional beginnings and endings were used..
Fairy tales are philosophical in nature, their specific content is based on the generalized thought of the people.
A fairy tale is a specific phenomenon that explains several genres. Russian fairy tales are usually divided into the following genres about animals, magical and everyday (anecdotal and novelistic).
Audio fairy tales for children at night is a good solution for parents of our time. So, as there is not always the strength to read fairy tales to your children before going to bed, but this is very important. At such moments, children's audio fairy tales are our salvation. It is considered an excellent option to listen to the work, and then tell the child in your own words. Believe me, he will be much more interesting, and such moments will be remembered by him for a lifetime.
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