You are artistic means. Means of expressiveness of artistic speech

Considers a topic that causes difficulties for most graduates who take the exam. Let's explore the means of artistic expression!

We speak the same language with you, if you are reading this now. Fabulous! Wonderful! Amazing! I used emotionally colored vocabulary, and you understood me. And that's it? No, you felt certain state of mind who wrote, emotions, feelings. Only one artistic medium was used? No. Three at least: the already named emotionally colored vocabulary, one more lexical device- synonyms and syntactic means - exclamatory sentences. And this is only a small part of all the artistic means that we use, depending on the ability to handle the Word and on the goals that we set for ourselves. from the speech situation. From style. But first things first...

One of the aphorisms of G. Lichtenberg sounds something like this: "The most dangerous lie is the slightly twisted truth". This is true. At school we don't always get truthful information. For example, with primary school everyone knows that the subject is who or what the sentence is talking about. However, there are also atypical ways of expressing the subject (TO LIVE - to serve the Motherland. Far away, "Hurrah" struck.) Well, they lied to us? Specially? What for? Would you learn to find typical subject, if you were immediately provided with accurate information? Hardly. Unless at a more conscious age.

So, we will not strive to "embrace the immensity"? Let's try to limit ourselves to grains of knowledge?

(If you are from the category of consistent fighters for justice, if you are used to reaching everything with your mind, then we refer you immediately to the works of the classics of literary criticism - B.V. Tomashevsky, G.N. Pospelov, V.P. Grigoriev. However, maybe Will it be enough for you to read the article "Tropes" in the "Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts"?

At different types Art is a common means of artistic expression: composition, form, rhythm, intonation. These terms, of course, have their own meanings in painting, poetry or music, because there are even more differences between art forms than similar features or techniques. As we have already agreed, it will not be possible to tell about everything. We should at least deal with literature ...

And we will talk about fiction - about the art of the Word. We will not touch on phonetic (sound writing), lexical (archaisms, anachronisms, synonyms, antonyms, professionalisms, jargon, homonyms, dialectisms, phraseological units), syntactic (word order, repetition, rhetorical figures) means of artistic expression. Let's talk about trails.

Not about roads in the forest or mountains, but about turns of speech - the use of words in figurative meaning, designed to enhance the figurativeness of the poetic and in general artistic language. Stories fiction over two thousand years. There are about the same number of tropes, but so far literary critics have not agreed what to consider as tropes and what not. Someone separates tropes from figures of speech, someone even more streamlines the classification of means of artistic expression. We will lie again and classify as tropes not only metaphor (the only generally recognized trope, by the way), but also metonymy, synecdoche, epithet, paraphrase, allegory, comparison, oxymoron, symbol, irony. Personification can be singled out as a separate trope, but perhaps it would be more convenient to consider it a kind of metaphor. May it be so!

We will take the definitions of paths in the "Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts" by A.N. Nikolyukin.

METAPHOR (Greek metaphora-transfer) - the most common trope based on the principle of similarity, analogy, less often - the contrast of phenomena; often used in everyday speech.

If a writer wants to speak beautifully, figuratively about some concept, object, phenomenon, event, a metaphor is used. Sometimes a word, sometimes a whole expression. The poetic speech of the poet Alexander Blok is extremely metaphorical: " The wall merges high with the darkness"(expanded metaphor), "Transparent blue ice twitched her soul"(here the hidden comparison is involved in creating a detailed metaphor), "While you night you breathe into yourself".

Rarely does a metaphor do without an epithet.

EPITET (Greek epitheton - application) - artistic and stylistic device: figurative definition.

Most often, epithets are definitions expressed by adjectives, unexpected, unusual, bright. Here are the epithets used by A. Blok: "Here is the memory of the wave St remained foamy next", "There is a bright window and light silence", "Night, street, lamp, pharmacy, nonsensical and dim light. How much additional deep meaning is attached to ordinary words by epithets!

In folklore, everything is much more conditional than in literature, everything is subordinated to certain rules, therefore, the epithets that decorate speech are used here the same. That is why they are called permanent: kind well done", " clear Sun", " red girl."

And a little more about metaphor, or rather about its variety - personification.

PERSONALIZATION, prosopopoeia (Greek prosopon - face and poieo - I do), personification (Latin persona - mask, face and facio - I do) - a special kind of metaphor: the transfer of human features (more broadly - the features of a living being) to inanimate objects and phenomena.

That is, inanimate in understanding ordinary person comes to life, endowed with the properties of a living poet. Let's take examples again from the great magician of the word, classic silver age Russian poetry of Alexander Blok: "I do not know, but there is no doubt that perished former False", "AND wanders familiar in the corners shiver", "Evil dreams fly by, ringing".

Comparisons are often referred to as paths.

COMPARISON (lat. comparatio) - 1. Comparison of objects in order to identify their similarities or differences; 2. Type of path based on the likening of correlated phenomena.

Let's leave Blok alone for a while and give examples of comparisons from poems less famous poets: "In melancholy, like in a room, I enter "(P. Kogan)," It [happiness] will flash from afar, like the light of dawn, like a rainbow over a field, like a river in dark green"(S.Andreevsky)," Like flakes of smoky, brown cotton wool, bumps snow "(M. Kuzmin). Comparisons are most often comparative turnovers, beginning with the words "like, exactly, as if, as if, as if", before the comparison, there may be the word "similar (similar)". In the role of comparisons can be nouns in the instrumental case: "From nothing - fountain light suddenly splashed blue" (A. Blok).

A few more words about trails with examples.

OXYMORON, oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - stylistic figure, consisting in a combination of incompatible in meaning; contradictory unity, a kind of paradox. Examples: " sadness my bright", "I love magnificent nature withering"(A. Pushkin), "So ceremonially naked"(A. Akhmatova). There are also oxymorons in the titles of the works: " Dead Souls, Living Corpse.

Metonymy (type of trail: designation of an object or phenomenon according to one of its signs, when direct meaning combined with figurative) it is very difficult to distinguish from synecdoche (a kind of metonymy) instead of the whole, a part is named. Examples of metonymy: "I am three plates ate "(I.A. Krylov). Here are three plates - food. Synecdoche: "And it was heard before dawn, how rejoiced Frenchman"(M.Yu. Lermontov). In A. Nikolyukin's "Literary Encyclopedia" they are generally mentioned in one small article. And very few.

When specialists choose not to talk about a subject, we understand that it is too difficult for them too. What should we do? Be content with little. If you have learned to find and distinguish from each other at least a metaphor, comparison, epithet, this is already good. Wanted more? Try looking into " encyclopedic Dictionary young literary critic "V.I. Novikov. You will find a lot of interesting and useful things there. And as a conclusion, find the famous tropes in the poem by Alexander Blok:

From nothing - a blue fountain

Suddenly there was a burst of light.

We'll throw our heads up

He is no more

Scattered over the black distance

golden bundle,

And here - again - an arc, a spiral,

Ball, top,

Green, yellow, blue, red -

All night in the rays ...

And, having awakened her in vain,

Withered.

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TRACKS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or turns of speech in a figurative, allegorical sense. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of trail based on exaggeration ("rivers of blood", "sea of ​​laughter"). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in the ancient epic among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially

V. Mayakovsky ("I", "Napoleon", "150,000,000"). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc.). The opposite - litotes.

LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. The litote is in folk tales: "boy with a finger", "hut on chicken legs", "man with a marigold".
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litote hyperbola.

N. Gogol often addressed the litote:
“Such a small mouth that it cannot miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - trope, hidden figurative comparison, transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another on the basis common features(“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “stone heart” ...). In metaphor, unlike

comparisons, the words "as", "as if", "as if" are omitted, but implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

You in the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification ("water runs"), reification ("nerves of steel"), distraction ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation fragrant lilac,
Singing, a bee crawls in ...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undivided comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of their oatmeal hair
You touched me forever...
The eyes of a dog rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widely used in art:

Ah, my bush withered my head,
Sucked me song captivity
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turn the millstones of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work is a broad, detailed metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - tropes; replacing one word or expression with another based on the proximity of meanings; the use of expressions in figuratively("foaming glass" - refers to wine in a glass; "forest noise" - refers to trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are shining;

Parterre and chairs, everything is in full swing ...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts. At the same time, signs or connections that bring these phenomena together remain; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of "a steel speaker dozing in a holster," the reader easily guesses in this image the metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary values, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a plentiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe perished; grave dream
Worn over her head...

A. Pushkin

When is the shore of hell
Forever will take me
When forever fall asleep
Feather, my consolation...

A. Pushkin

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. ("king of birds" instead of "eagle", "king of beasts" - instead of "lion")

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a kind of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays ...).

my bells,

Steppe flowers!

What are you looking at me

Dark blue?

And what are you talking about

On a happy May day,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche are:
1) Part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door
jackets,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet?
Well, isn't it a vile parod!

3) Singular in the meaning of the general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn ...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing a generic concept with a specific one:

We beat a penny. Very well!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacing a specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said how he cut off” ...). A storm covers the sky with mist,

Whirlwinds of snow twisting;

The way the beast she howls

He will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

"Like a steppe scorched by fires, Grigory's life became black" (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that dreary and painful feeling that corresponds to the state of Gregory. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - "scorched steppe" to another - internal state character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Exciting only a silver feather grass,
Wandering flying aquilon
And before him freely drives the dust;
And where around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birches,
Which under the bluish haze
Blacken in the evening in the empty distance.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, distinguish
There are few things we can do in it, in the color of years
She will not cheer the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make immortal like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't what it means to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of expanded S. Lermontov, he conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by unions "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
"Do I have curls - combed linen" N. Nekrasov. Here the union is omitted. But sometimes it's not meant to be:
"Tomorrow is the execution, the usual feast for the people" A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are built descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she is
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Fresh morning roses.

A. Pushkin

She is sweet - I will say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And you can with southern stars
Compare, especially in verse,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
Blue clouds do not admire them:
Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is at the same time a way of comparing and a way of transferring meanings.
A special case is the forms of the instrumental case used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards North Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I do not soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form accusative with the preposition "under":
"Sergey Platonovich ... sat with Atepin in the dining room, pasted over with expensive, oak-like wallpaper ..."

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Frost - warlord patrol

Bypasses his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images date back to Greek and Roman mythology. So, the image of a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike a metaphor, in an allegory, a figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even small work(fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - bizarre, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged at the meeting, I burst into an avalanche,

Spouting wild curses dear.

And I see: half of the people are sitting.

O devilry! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - an expression of mockery or slyness through allegory. A word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calling it into question.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with speech you are free

All those who had their mouths shut.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tear meat) - contemptuous, caustic mockery; highest degree irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or respond) - repetition in a line, stanza or phrase of homogeneous vowel sounds.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

Endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUND)(lat. ad - to, with and littera - letter) - the repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

Storm is near. Beats on the shore

A black boat alien to charms ...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from lat. allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, a literary work ("the glory of Herostratus").

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - repetition initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.

You are poor

You are abundant

You are beaten

You are almighty

Mother Russia!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush, like a poppy color,

I am like death, and thin and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You are poor
You are abundant
You are powerful
You are powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads traveled, so many mistakes made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the whole work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.

... Suddenly, out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth on them ...

A.N. Krylov

Lay, laugh, sing, whistle and clap,

People's talk and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with no conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lamp, pharmacy,

A meaningless and dim light.

Live at least a quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no exit.

A. Blok

POLYUNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of unions, creating additional intonational coloring. The opposite figureunionlessness.

Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves are crowding, and rushing back,
And they come again, and hit the shore ...

M. Lermontov

And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to ...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - the increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(lat. inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.

Traditions of antiquity deep

A.S. Pushkin

Doorman past he's an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting, opposite in meaning words (a living corpse, a giant dwarf, the heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) - an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

Waves crash in the blue sea.

AT blue sky the stars are shining.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of oral works. folk art(epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and close to them in their artistic features literary works(“The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Russia” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic character in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov "The clouds of heaven are eternal wanderers."

Parallelism can be both verbal and figurative, as well as rhythmic, compositional.

PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonational division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically identified as independent sentences. ("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Stooping" P. G. Antokolsky. "How courteous! Good! Mila! Simple!" Griboedov. "Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. Squinted."

N. Ilyina. “He had a fight with a girl. And that's why." G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a mismatch between the syntactic articulation of speech and articulation into verses. When transferring, the syntactic pause within a verse or half-line is stronger than at its end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

Shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's all like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek "rhythmos" - harmony, proportionality) - variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a sense of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - loss, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, a tense change of action is transmitted. Ellipsis is one of the default types. In artistic speech, it conveys the excitation of the speaker or the intensity of the action:

We sat down - in ashes, cities - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows.

TRACKS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or turns of speech in a figurative, allegorical sense. Trails are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of trail based on exaggeration ("rivers of blood", "sea of ​​laughter"). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in the ancient epic among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially

V. Mayakovsky ("I", "Napoleon", "150,000,000"). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc.). The opposite - litotes.

LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. There is a litote in folk tales: "a boy with a finger", "a hut on chicken legs", "a peasant with a fingernail".
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litote hyperbola.

N. Gogol often addressed the litote:
“Such a small mouth that it cannot miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - trope, hidden figurative comparison, transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common features (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “stone heart” ...). In metaphor, unlike

comparisons, the words "as", "as if", "as if" are omitted, but implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

You in the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification ("water runs"), reification ("nerves of steel"), distraction ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation fragrant lilac,
Singing, a bee crawls in ...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undivided comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of their oatmeal hair
You touched me forever...
The eyes of a dog rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widely used in art:

Ah, my bush withered my head,
Sucked me song captivity
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turn the millstones of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work is a broad, detailed metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - tropes; replacing one word or expression with another based on the proximity of meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "forest noise" - trees are meant; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are shining;

Parterre and chairs, everything is in full swing ...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts. At the same time, signs or connections that bring these phenomena together remain; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of "a steel speaker dozing in a holster," the reader easily guesses in this image the metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a plentiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe perished; grave dream
Worn over her head...

A. Pushkin

When is the shore of hell
Forever will take me
When forever fall asleep
Feather, my consolation...

A. Pushkin

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. ("king of birds" instead of "eagle", "king of beasts" - instead of "lion")

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a kind of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays ...).

my bells,

Steppe flowers!

What are you looking at me

Dark blue?

And what are you talking about

On a happy May day,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche are:
1) Part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door
jackets,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet?
Well, isn't it a vile parod!

3) Singular in the meaning of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn ...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing a generic concept with a specific one:

We beat a penny. Very well!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacing a specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said how he cut off” ...). A storm covers the sky with mist,

Whirlwinds of snow twisting;

The way the beast she howls

He will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

"Like a steppe scorched by fires, Grigory's life became black" (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that dreary and painful feeling that corresponds to the state of Gregory. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - "scorched steppe" to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Exciting only a silver feather grass,
Wandering flying aquilon
And before him freely drives the dust;
And where around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birches,
Which under the bluish haze
Blacken in the evening in the empty distance.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, distinguish
There are few things we can do in it, in the color of years
She will not cheer the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make immortal like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't what it means to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of expanded S. Lermontov, he conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by unions "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
"Do I have curls - combed linen" N. Nekrasov. Here the union is omitted. But sometimes it's not meant to be:
"Tomorrow is the execution, the usual feast for the people" A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are built descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she is
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Fresh morning roses.

A. Pushkin

She is sweet - I will say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And you can with southern stars
Compare, especially in verse,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
Blue clouds do not admire them:
Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is at the same time a way of comparing and a way of transferring meanings.
A special case is the forms of the instrumental case used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards North Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I do not soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the accusative case with the preposition "under":
"Sergey Platonovich ... sat with Atepin in the dining room, pasted over with expensive, oak-like wallpaper ..."

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Frost - warlord patrol

Bypasses his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images date back to Greek and Roman mythology. So, the image of a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike a metaphor, in an allegory, the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - bizarre, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged at the meeting, I burst into an avalanche,

Spouting wild curses dear.

And I see: half of the people are sitting.

O devilry! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - an expression of mockery or slyness through allegory. A word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calling it into question.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with speech you are free

All those who had their mouths shut.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tear meat) - contemptuous, caustic mockery; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or respond) - repetition in a line, stanza or phrase of homogeneous vowel sounds.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

Endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUND)(lat. ad - to, with and littera - letter) - the repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

Storm is near. Beats on the shore

A black boat alien to charms ...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - a joke, a hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or a mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work ("the glory of Herostratus").

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - repetition of initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.

You are poor

You are abundant

You are beaten

You are almighty

Mother Russia!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush, like a poppy color,

I am like death, and thin and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You are poor
You are abundant
You are powerful
You are powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads traveled, so many mistakes made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the whole work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.

... Suddenly, out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth on them ...

A.N. Krylov

Lay, laugh, sing, whistle and clap,

People's talk and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with no conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lamp, pharmacy,

A meaningless and dim light.

Live at least a quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no exit.

A. Blok

POLYUNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of unions, creating additional intonational coloring. The opposite figureunionlessness.

Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves are crowding, and rushing back,
And they come again, and hit the shore ...

M. Lermontov

And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to ...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - the increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(lat. inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.

Traditions of antiquity deep

A.S. Pushkin

Doorman past he's an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting, opposite in meaning words (a living corpse, a giant dwarf, the heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) - an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

Waves crash in the blue sea.

The stars are shining in the blue sky.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Russia” N. A Nekrasov, "Vasily Terkin" by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic character in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov "The clouds of heaven are eternal wanderers."

Parallelism can be both verbal and figurative, as well as rhythmic, compositional.

PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonational division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically identified as independent sentences. ("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Stooping" P. G. Antokolsky. "How courteous! Good! Mila! Simple!" Griboedov. "Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. Squinted."

N. Ilyina. “He had a fight with a girl. And that's why." G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a mismatch between the syntactic articulation of speech and articulation into verses. When transferring, the syntactic pause within a verse or half-line is stronger than at its end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

Shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's all like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek "rhythmos" - harmony, proportionality) - variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a sense of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - loss, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, a tense change of action is transmitted. Ellipsis is one of the default types. In artistic speech, it conveys the excitation of the speaker or the intensity of the action:

We sat down - in ashes, cities - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows.

Test 1

Exercise:

1. Under it, a stream of lighter azure.

(M. Lermontov.)

2. A heroic horse jumps through the forest.

(Epic)

3. The golden stars dozed off.

(S. Yesenin.)

4. Ahead is a deserted September day.

(K. Paustovsky.)

5. Water is tired of singing, tired of flowing,

Shine, flow and shimmer.

(D. Samoilov.)

6. Sleep dandelions went to bed with us,

children, and stood up with us.

(M. Prishvin.)

7. She chirps and sings

On the eve of boron,

as if guarding the entrance

In forest burrows.

(B. Pasternak.)

8. Forests clad in crimson and gold.

(A. Pushkin.)

9. Autumn will wake up soon

and cry awake.

(K. Balmont.)

10. But it's still cold

And not to sing, but, like armor, to ring.

(D. Samoilov.)

Test 2 .

Exercise: Name the means of expression used by the author.

1. Life is a mouse run ...

What are you worrying me about? (A. Pushkin)

2. A boy with a finger.

3. The forest is like a painted tower. (I. Bunin)

4.When people….

Belinsky and Gogol

From the market will carry. (N. Nekrasov)

5. O Volga, my cradle! (N. Nekrasov)

6. It's snowy, it's snowy all over the earth,

To all limits.

The candle burned on the table

The candle was burning. (B.Pasternak)

7. They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire,

Not so different from each other. (A. Pushkin)

8. We have not seen each other for a hundred years!

9. Seahorses seemed much more interesting. (V. Kataev)

10. And punch flame blue. (A. Pushkin

Test #1Answers: 1. Comparison (simple). 2. Hyperbole.3. Personification. 4. Epithet. 5. Homogeneous members of the proposal. 6. Personification. 7. Comparison.8.Metaphor 9. Personifications 10. Comparison.

Test number 2 Answers: 1. Rhetorical question 2. Litota 3. Comparison 4. Metonymy 5. Appeal 6. Lexical repetition 7. Antithesis8. Hyperbole 9. Comparison10. Metaphor

To figurative and expressive language means fiction include:

Epithet- artistic and figurative definition of any object or phenomenon.

Example: sadness "ineffable" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the thinnest"(O. Mandelstam "Inexpressible sadness...")

Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.

Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Mixed up in a bunch of horses, people, And volleys thousands of guns Merged into a long howl ... (M.Yu. Lermontov "Borodino")

Litotes- artistic understatement ("reverse hyperbole").

Example: " Younger son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akhmatova. "Lullaby").

trails- words or phrases used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. The paths include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, paraphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, simile, euphemism.

Allegory- allegory, the image of an abstract idea through a specific, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.

Example: Fox- cunning, wolf- cruelty a donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A. S. Pushkin "When you squeeze your hand again ...").

allusion- one of the tropes, which consists in using a transparent allusion to some well-known household, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning the fact itself.

Example: A. S. Pushkin's mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:

For what? answer: whether

What's on the ruins of burning Moscow

We did not recognize impudent will

The one under whom you trembled?

("To the slanderers of Russia")

Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some features common to the compared, compared objects or phenomena.

Example: The east burns with a new dawn(A. S. Pushkin "Poltava").

personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).

Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed the galloping cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita").

Metonymy- a poetic trope, consisting in the replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal relationship with the first.

Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city

Over the wide, like the Nile, the high-water Neva,

(N. S. Gumilyov "Abyssinia")

Synecdoche- one of the paths, which is built on the ratios of quantity; more instead of less, or vice versa.

Example: Say: will we soon Warsaw Will the proud prescribe his law? (A. S. Pushkin "Borodino anniversary")

paraphrase- a trope, which is based on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists in replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive turn of speech, which indicates the signs of an object not directly named.

Example: in the poem by A. A. Akhmatova " swarthy lad wandered along the alleys ... ”A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted with the help of paraphrase:

Here lay his cocked hat And the disheveled volume of Guys.

Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (in stylistic organization close to a paraphrase).

Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant recovered instead of fat, borrowed stole something together, etc.

Symbol- a hidden comparison, in which the compared object is not called, but is implied with a certain share

variability (polysemy). The symbol only points to some kind of reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly, this contains the fundamental difference between the symbol and the metaphor, with which it is often confused.

Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K. D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point of contact between the poet and the cloud is "fleeting".

Anaphora (unity)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).

Example: Kohl love, so without reason, Kohl threaten, so not a joke, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, so off the shoulder! (A. K. Tolstoy “If you love, then without reason ...”)

polyunion- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same union:

Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the haze

Above the cold desert water. (I. A. Bunin "Loneliness")

gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.

Example: No one will give us deliverance, Not a god, not a king, not a hero...

(E. Pottier "International")

Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of opposite words in order to create a poetic effect.

Example: "I love magnificent nature withering..."(A. S. Pushkin "Autumn").

Alliteration- a sound recording technique that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound by repeating certain consonant sounds.

Example: “Katya, Katya, they carve horseshoes for me at a gallop ...”. In I. Selvinsky’s poem “Black-eyed Cossack”, the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.

Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to their semantics, most often ironic.

Example: ...he sang faded life color"Without little at eighteen. (A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin")

Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or group of works.

Example: in the poem "Tsarskoye Selo Statue" A.S. Pushkin resorts to the stylization of ancient poetry:

Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on the rock. The maiden sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! water does not dry up, pouring out of a broken urn, the Virgin sits forever sadly above the eternal stream.

Anthology- the use in the work of words and expressions in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, "prosaic" speech.

Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant who brings me a cup of tea in the morning, Questions: is it warm? has the blizzard subsided? (A. S. Pushkin "Winter. What should we do in the village? ..")

Antithesis- artistic opposition of images, concepts, positions, situations, etc.

Example: here is a fragment of the historical song "Choice of Yer-mak as ataman":

Not clear falcons flocked - Gathered, congregated Good fellows...