1989 who ruled in the USSR. Who was the President of the USSR and the Russian Federation

Historians call the dates of Stalin's reign the period from 1929 to 1953. Joseph Stalin (Dzhugashvili) was born on December 21, 1879. Many contemporaries Soviet era associate the years of Stalin's rule not only with the victory over fascist Germany and an increase in the level of industrialization of the USSR, but also with numerous repressions of the civilian population.

During the reign of Stalin, about 3 million people were imprisoned and sentenced to death. And if we add to them those sent into exile, dispossessed and deported, then the victims among the civilian population in the Stalin era can be counted as about 20 million people. Now many historians and psychologists are inclined to believe that the situation within the family and upbringing in childhood had a huge impact on Stalin's character.

The formation of Stalin's tough character

From reliable sources it is known that Stalin's childhood was not the happiest and most cloudless. The leader's parents often cursed in front of their son. The father drank a lot and allowed himself to beat his mother in front of little Joseph. The mother, in turn, took out her anger on her son, beat and humiliated him. The unfavorable atmosphere in the family greatly affected Stalin's psyche. Even as a child, Stalin understood a simple truth: whoever is stronger is right. This principle became the motto of the future leader in life. He was also guided by him in governing the country.

In 1902, Joseph Vissarionovich organized a demonstration in Batumi, this step was the first for him in his political career. A little later, Stalin became the Bolshevik leader, and Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Ulyanov) is among his best friends. Stalin fully shares the revolutionary ideas of Lenin.

In 1913, Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili first used his pseudonym - Stalin. From that time on, he became known by this surname. Few people know that before the surname Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich tried on about 30 pseudonyms that never took root.

Stalin's reign

The period of Stalin's rule begins in 1929. Almost all the time of the reign of Joseph Stalin is accompanied by collectivization, mass death of the civilian population and famine. In 1932, Stalin adopted the law "on three spikelets". According to this law, a starving peasant who stole ears of wheat from the state was immediately subject to the highest penalty - execution. All the saved bread in the state was sent abroad. This was the first stage in the industrialization of the Soviet state: the purchase of modern foreign-made equipment.

During the reign of Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, mass repressions of the peaceful population of the USSR were carried out. The beginning of the repressions was laid in 1936, when the post of People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR was taken by Yezhov N.I. In 1938, on the orders of Stalin, his close friend, Bukharin, was shot. During this period, many residents of the USSR were exiled to the Gulag or shot. Despite all the cruelty of the measures taken, Stalin's policy was aimed at raising the state and its development.

Pros and cons of Stalin's rule

Minuses:

• tough government policy:
• the almost complete destruction of the highest army officials, intellectuals and scientists (who thought differently from the government of the USSR);
• repression of wealthy peasants and the believing population;
• widening "chasm" between the elite and the working class;
• oppression of the civilian population: wages in products instead of cash rewards, working hours up to 14 hours;
• propaganda of anti-Semitism;
• about 7 million starvation deaths during the period of collectivization;
• prosperity of slavery;
• selective development of branches of the economy of the Soviet state.

Pros:

• the creation of a protective nuclear shield in the post-war period;
• an increase in the number of schools;
• creation of children's clubs, sections and circles;
• space exploration;
• reduction in commodity prices consumer goods;
• low prices for utilities;
• development of the industry of the Soviet state on the world stage.

During the Stalin era, it was formed social system USSR, social, political and economic institutions appeared. Iosif Vissarionovich completely abandoned the NEP policy, carried out the modernization of the Soviet state at the expense of the village. Thanks to the strategic qualities of the Soviet leader, the USSR won the Second World War. The Soviet state began to be called a superpower. The USSR became a member of the UN Security Council. The era of Stalin's rule ended in 1953. N. Khrushchev replaced him as chairman of the government of the USSR.

The death of Stalin on March 5, 1953 contributed to the beginning of the struggle for power within the CPSU party. This struggle continued until 1958.

Struggle for power after Stalin on the initial stage was fought between Melenkov and Beria. Both of them spoke out for the fact that the functions of power should be transferred from the hands of the CPSU to the state. The struggle for power after Stalin between these two people lasted only until June 1953, but it was during this short historical period that the first wave of criticism of Stalin's personality cult fell. For members of the CPSU, the coming to power of Beria or Malenkov meant a weakening of the role of the party in governing the country, since this point was actively promoted by both Beria and Malenkov. It was for this reason that Khrushchev, who at that time headed the Central Committee of the CPSU, began to look for ways to remove from power, first of all, Beria, who he saw as the most dangerous opponent. Members of the Central Committee of the CPSU supported Khrushchev in this decision. As a result, on June 26, Beria was arrested. It happened at the next meeting of the Council of Ministers. Soon Beria was declared an enemy of the people and an opponent of the Communist Party. The inevitable punishment followed - execution.

The struggle for power after Stalin continued into the second stage (summer 1953 - February 1955). Khrushchev, who had removed Beria from his path, was now Malenkov's main political rival. In September 1953, the Congress of the Central Committee of the CPSU approved Khrushchev as the General Secretary of the Party. The problem was that Khrushchev did not hold any public office. At this stage of the struggle for power, Khrushchev secured the support of the majority in the party. As a result, Khrushchev's position in the country became noticeably stronger, while Malenkov lost his position. This was largely due to the events of December 1954. At this time, Khrushchev arranged a process against the leaders of the MGB, who were accused of forging documents in the "Leningrad case". Malenkov was heavily compromised as a result of this process. As a result of this process, Bulganin removed Malenkov from the post he held (head of government).

The third stage, in which struggle for power after Stalin, began in February 1955 and continued until March 1958. At this stage, Malenkov united with Molotov and Kaganovich. The united "opposition" decided to take advantage of the fact that they had a majority in the party. At the next congress, which took place in the summer of 1957, the post of first secretary of the party was eliminated. Khrushchev was appointed Minister of Agriculture. As a result, Khrushchev demanded the convening of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, since, according to the party charter, only this body could make such decisions. Khrushchev, taking advantage of the fact that he was the secretary of the party, personally selected the composition of the Plenum. The vast majority of people who supported Khrushchev turned out to be there. As a result, Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov were dismissed. This decision was made by the Plenum of the Central Committee, arguing that all three were anti-party activities.

The struggle for power after Stalin was actually won by Khrushchev. The party secretary understood how important the post of chairman of the council of ministers is in the state. Khrushchev did everything to take this post, since Bulganin, who held this position, openly supported Malenkov in 1957. In March 1958, the formation of a new government began in the USSR. As a result, Khrushchev achieved his appointment to the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers. At the same time, he retained the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. In fact, this meant Khrushchev's victory. The struggle for power after Stalin was over.

With the death of Stalin - the "father of the peoples" and the "architect of communism" - in 1953, a struggle for power began, because the one established by him assumed that the same autocratic leader would be at the helm of the USSR, who would take the reins of government into his own hands.

The only difference was that the main contenders for power were all in favor of the abolition of this very cult and the liberalization of the country's political course.

Who ruled after Stalin?

A serious struggle unfolded between the three main contenders, who initially represented a triumvirate - Georgy Malenkov (chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR), Lavrenty Beria (minister of the united Ministry of Internal Affairs) and Nikita Khrushchev (secretary of the CPSU Central Committee). Each of them wanted to take a seat, but victory could only go to the candidate whose candidacy was supported by the party, whose members enjoyed great prestige and had the right connections. In addition, all of them were united by the desire to achieve stability, end the era of repression and gain more freedom in their actions. That is why the question of who ruled after Stalin's death does not always have an unambiguous answer - after all, there were three people at once fighting for power.

Triumvirate in power: the beginning of the split

The triumvirate created under Stalin divided the power. Most of it was concentrated in the hands of Malenkov and Beria. Khrushchev was assigned the role of secretary, not so significant in the eyes of his rivals. However, they underestimated the ambitious and assertive party member, who stood out for his extraordinary thinking and intuition.

For those who ruled the country after Stalin, it was important to understand who should be eliminated from the competition in the first place. The first target was Lavrenty Beria. Khrushchev and Malenkov were aware of the dossier on each of them that the Minister of the Interior, who was in charge of the entire system of repressive agencies, had. In this regard, in July 1953, Beria was arrested, accusing him of espionage and some other crimes, thereby eliminating such a dangerous enemy.

Malenkov and his politics

Khrushchev's authority as the organizer of this conspiracy increased significantly, and his influence on other party members increased. However, while Malenkov was Chairman of the Council of Ministers, key decisions and policy directions depended on him. At the first meeting of the Presidium, a course was taken towards de-Stalinization and the establishment collective management country: it was planned to abolish the cult of personality, but to do it in such a way as not to detract from the merits of the "father of nations". The main task set by Malenkov was to develop the economy taking into account the interests of the population. He proposed a rather extensive program of changes, which was not adopted at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Then Malenkov put forward the same proposals at the session of the Supreme Council, where they were approved. For the first time since Stalin's absolute rule, a decision was made not by the party, but by an official authority. The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Politburo were forced to agree to this.

Further history will show that among those who ruled after Stalin, Malenkov will be the most "effective" in his decisions. The set of measures he adopted to combat bureaucracy in the state and party apparatus, to develop the food and light industry, and to expand the independence of collective farms bore fruit: 1954-1956, for the first time after the end of the war, showed an increase in rural population and the growth of agricultural production, which long years decline and stagnation became profitable. The effect of these measures persisted until 1958. It is this five-year plan that is considered the most productive and productive after the death of Stalin.

It was clear to those who ruled after Stalin that it would not be possible to achieve such success in the light industry, since Malenkov’s proposals for its development contradicted the tasks of the next five-year plan, which emphasized the promotion

I tried to approach the solution of problems from a rational point of view, applying economic rather than ideological considerations. However, this order did not suit the party nomenklatura (headed by Khrushchev), which had practically lost its predominant role in the life of the state. This was a weighty argument against Malenkov, who, under pressure from the party, submitted his resignation in February 1955. Khrushchev's ally Malenkov took his place and became one of his deputies, but after the dispersal of the anti-party group in 1957 (of which he was a member), he was expelled from the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee along with his supporters. Khrushchev took advantage of this situation and in 1958 also removed Malenkov from the post of chairman of the Council of Ministers, taking his place and becoming the one who ruled after Stalin in the USSR.

Thus, he concentrated in his hands almost complete power. He got rid of the two most powerful competitors and led the country.

Who ruled the country after the death of Stalin and the removal of Malenkov?

Those 11 years that Khrushchev ruled the USSR are rich in various events and reforms. There were many problems on the agenda that the state faced after industrialization, war and attempts to restore the economy. The main milestones that remember the era of Khrushchev's rule are as follows:

1. The virgin lands development policy (not supported by scientific study) increased the amount of sown area, but did not take into account the climatic features that hampered the development of agriculture in the developed territories.
2. "Corn Campaign", the purpose of which was to catch up and overtake the United States, which received good harvests of this crop. The area under corn has doubled to the detriment of rye and wheat. But the result was sad - climatic conditions did not allow to get a high yield, and the reduction of areas for other crops provoked low rates for their collection. The campaign failed miserably in 1962, and its result was an increase in the price of butter and meat, which caused discontent among the population.
3. The beginning of perestroika is the mass construction of houses, which allowed many families to move from hostels and communal apartments to apartments (the so-called "Khrushchevs").

The results of Khrushchev's reign

Among those who ruled after Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev stood out for his non-standard and not always well-thought-out approach to reforming within the state. Despite numerous projects that were put into practice, their inconsistency led to Khrushchev's removal from office in 1964.

Russian history

Topic #20

USSR AFTER STALIN in the 1950s

LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY AFTER THE DEATH OF STALIN (1953–1955)

In the end 1952 was arrested by the MGB large groupKremlin doctors, who were accused of deliberately killing the leaders of the party and state (in 1945 - the 1st secretary of the Moscow city party committee and chairman of the Sovinformburo Alexander Sergeevich Shcherbakov, in 1948 - Andrei Alexandrovich Zhdanov). The majority of those arrested were Jews by nationality, which gave reason to declare "disclosure of a Zionist terrorist group of killer doctors", "associated with the international Jewish bourgeois-nationalist organization "Joint"". A TASS report about this was published in Pravda on January 13, 1953. “The pests were exposed” by the doctor Lidia Timashuk, who was awarded the Order of Lenin for this (in April 1953, after Stalin’s death, the award decree was canceled “as incorrect”). The arrest of the doctors was supposed to be the end of the anti-Semitic campaign in the USSR: after the public execution of the killer doctors, mass repressions were to be brought down on all Jews, they were evicted to Siberia, etc. The arrest of the doctors was carried out with Stalin's sanction, among those arrested was Stalin's personal doctor, Professor V. N. Vinogradov, who, having discovered that the leader had a cerebrovascular accident and multiple small brain hemorrhages, said that Stalin needed to retire from vigorous activity. Stalin regarded this as a desire to deprive him of power (in 1922 he did the same with Lenin, isolating him in Gorki).

Organizers "Doctors' Affairs" were L.P. Beria and the new Minister of State Security S.D. Ignatiev, the executor was the head of the investigative unit of the MGB, Major Ryumin. In this way, Stalin was deprived of the help of the most qualified doctors, and the very first serious cerebral hemorrhage became fatal for him.

(A month after Stalin's death, a report was published by the Ministry of Internal Affairs on the verification of this case, on the illegality of the arrests, on the use of methods of investigation in the MGB that were unacceptable and prohibited by Soviet laws. The doctors were released, Major Ryumin was arrested and shot in the summer of 1954, six months after Beria. )

March 2, 1953 Stalin was struck by a blow at his dacha in Kuntsevo near Moscow, and for about half a day he was not provided with any help. Stalin's condition was hopeless ("Cheyne-Stokes breath"). Without regaining consciousness Stalin died at 21.50 March 5, 1953 From March 1953 to October 1961, Stalin's body was in the Mausoleum next to Lenin's body. On the day of the funeral (March 9) there was a stampede in Moscow, hundreds of people were killed or maimed.

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR(Stalin's successor as head of government) became George Maximilianovich Malenkov. His first deputies were L.P. Beria, V.M. Molotov, N.A. Bulganin and L.M. Kaganovich.

Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR(formally it was the position of the head of state) March 15 at the session of the Supreme Council was approved Kliment Efremovich Voroshilov.

MIA and MGB were united within the framework of the new Ministry of the Interior (MVD), the Minister of the Interior again (after 1946) became Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria. In 1953, an amnesty was held, and many criminals were released ("The Cold Summer of 53rd"). The country's crime rate has risen sharply (a new surge after 1945–1947). Beria intended to use this situation to strengthen the powers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for his own purposes.

Minister of Foreign Affairs again (after 1949) became Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov(A. Ya. Vyshinsky, who held this position, was sent to the USA by the Permanent Representative of the USSR to the UN, where he died of a heart attack).

Minister of War remained (since 1947, replaced Stalin himself in this post). Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov and Alexander Mikhailovich Vasilevsky became his first deputies.

Thus, after the death of Stalin, the period of disgrace for V. M. Molotov, K. E. Voroshilov and G. K. Zhukov ended.

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was the only secretary of the Central Committee who was part of the top party leadership - the Bureau of the Presidium. It was decided to release him from the duties of the 1st Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee, so that he could concentrate on work in the Central Committee. In fact, Khrushchev became manage the apparatus of the Central Committee of the CPSU, although formally he has not yet become the First Secretary. G. M. Malenkov and L. P. Beria, actually leading the country after Stalin's death, intended to concentrate power in the Council of Ministers - the government of the USSR. They needed the party apparatus for the precise execution of government decisions. In Khrushchev, they saw a simple performer who did not pretend to power. (They made the same mistake as Zinoviev and Kamenev, who in 1922 recommended Stalin for the post Secretary General Central Committee of the RCP(b).)

Beria and Malenkov understood the need for changes in the country, but while maintaining the essence of the regime. Beria took the initiative to normalize relations with Yugoslavia, Malenkov urged to take care of the material and cultural needs of the people. But the leadership of the party and the state was afraid that Beria, relying on the organs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, would sooner or later want to take all power into his own hands and eliminate all his rivals. Khrushchev initiated the elimination of Beria. Malenkov was the last to agree to the elimination of his friend Beria.

AT June 1953 Beria was arrested at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee in the Kremlin. The arrest was made by 6 officers led by marshals Zhukov and Moskalenko. Before that, all the guards in the Kremlin were replaced by the military, and Zhukov brought Tamanskaya and Kantemirovskaya tank divisions to warn possible actions employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for the release of Beria. The people were informed that the Plenum of the Central Committee, held on July 2–7, exposed “an agent of the British and Musavatist (bourgeois Azerbaijani) intelligence, an enemy of the people, Beria,” who “wormed his way into confidence” in the leadership of the party and state, sought to “place the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs over the party” and establish their personal power in the country. Beria was removed from all posts, expelled from the party, convicted by a military tribunal (chairman - Marshal I. S. Konev) and at the end December 1953 shot.

AT September 1953 Khrushchev was elected 1st Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The term "cult of personality" was first mentioned in the press. Verbatim records of the Plenums of the Central Committee (glasnost) began to be published. The people got the opportunity to visit the Kremlin museums. The process of rehabilitation of the innocently convicted has begun. Khrushchev's popularity grew, and the military and party apparatus supported him. In fact, Khrushchev became the first person in the state.

In 1955 Malenkov declared his unwillingness to hold the post of head of government. new Chairman Council of Ministers became Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin, and Malenkov became the Minister of Power Plants.

Even Malenkov, in his first speeches as head of government, spoke about the need to increase the production of consumer goods (group "B") and about the priority of group "B" over group "A" (production of means of production), about changing attitudes towards agriculture. Khrushchev criticized the outstripping pace of development of group "B", saying that without a powerful heavy industry, the country's defense capability and the rise of agriculture cannot be ensured. The main problem in the economy was the agrarian problem: there was a shortage of grain in the country, although Malenkov announced XIX Congress CPSU in 1952 that "the grain problem in the USSR has been solved."

Task number 1. Was G. M. Malenkov right when he spoke about the priority of group "B" over group "A"?

September (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee decided to increase purchase price for agricultural products (for meat - 5.5 times, for milk and butter - 2 times, for vegetables - 2 times and for grain - 1.5 times), take off debt from collective farms cut taxes on personal farms of collective farmers, not to redistribute income between collective farms (equalization condemned). Khrushchev declared that the improvement of the life of the people is impossible without the rise of agriculture and the improvement of the life of the collective farmers. Were reduced mandatory deliveries agricultural products to the state, reduced(subsequently cancelled) household taxes. This led to a greater interest of collective farmers in production, and the supply of cities improved. In peasant farms, the number of poultry increased, cows appeared. By the spring of 1954, 100,000 graduates were sent to collective farms and state farms.

Referring to the grain problem, Khrushchev said that Malenkov's statement at the 19th Party Congress about its solution was not true, and that the shortage of grain impeded the growth in the production of meat, milk and butter. Solving the grain problem was possible in two ways: the first - increase in yield, which required fertilizers and an increase in the culture of agriculture and would not give an immediate return, the second - expansion of cultivated areas.

In order to immediately increase grain production, it was decided to develop virgin and fallow lands in Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, the Volga region and Southern Urals. People landed right in the steppes, in off-road conditions, without basic amenities, lived in tents in the winter steppe, there was not enough equipment.

February-March (1954) Plenum of the Central Committee approved the decision to development of virgin lands . Already in the spring of 1954, 17 million hectares of land were raised and 124 grain state farms were created. The leaders of Kazakhstan, who insisted on preserving the traditional sheep breeding, were replaced: Panteleymon Kondratievich became the 1st Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan Ponomarenko, and the 2nd secretary - Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev. In 1954–1955 350 thousand people went to work in 425 virgin state farms on Komsomol vouchers. In the record-breaking year of 1956, virgin lands produced 40% of the country's total grain. At the same time, grain production in the arid steppes required a high degree of agricultural culture and was highly dependent on weather conditions. In the future, extensive (without the introduction scientific achievements and new technologies) farming practices led to the impoverishment of the fertile soil layer and the fall in yields due to wind erosion of the soil.

Thus, Khrushchev's attempt to solve the grain problem within the framework of the collective farm system failed, but grain production increased, which made it possible to eliminate bread lines and start free sale of flour. However, there was not enough grain for the needs of animal husbandry (for fattening beef cattle).

Task number 2. Was the development of virgin lands justified in the USSR?
XX CONGRESS OF THE CPSU. HIS SOLUTIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE

C 14 to 25 February 1956 The 20th Congress of the CPSU was held, which determined the final turn to de-Stalinization Soviet society, liberalization domestic economic and political life, expanding foreign policy ties and establishing friendly relations with a number of foreign countries

The report at the congress was made by Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev. Basic provisions international part of the report:

a) the fact is stated that it was formed and exists world system of socialism("socialist camp");

b) a desire is expressed cooperation with everyone social democratic movements and parties (under Stalin, social democracy was considered worst enemy the labor movement, because it distracts the workers from the revolutionary struggle with peaceful slogans);

c) stated that transition forms various countries towards socialism can be varied, including the possible way for the communists and socialists to win the parliamentary majority following the results of the elections and to carry out all the necessary socialist transformations by peaceful, parliamentary means (under Stalin, such statements would have been followed by an accusation of opportunism);

d) the principle is emphasized peaceful coexistence two systems (socialist and capitalist), building confidence and cooperation; socialism does not need to be exported: the working people of the capitalist countries will establish socialism themselves when they are convinced of its advantages;

e) danger of war persists, but her inevitability is no more, since the forces of the world (the socialist, labor movement, the countries of the "third world" - developing countries Asia, Africa and Latin America) is stronger than the forces of war.

The report provided an analysis of the internal economic situation USSR and tasks in the field of economics:

a) electrify the entire national economy, accelerate the electrification of railways;

b) create a powerful energy, metallurgical and machine-building base in Siberia and on Far East;

c) in the VI Five-Year Plan (1956-1960) to increase production industrial products by 65%, catch up with the developed capitalist countries in per capita output;

G) in agriculture to bring the annual grain harvest to 11 billion poods (1 pood = 16 kg), to fully provide the country with potatoes and vegetables in 2 years, to double the production of meat over the five-year period, focusing mainly on development pig breeding;

e) sharply increase crops corn, primarily to provide livestock with fodder (Khrushchev, working after the war as the 1st secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, saw that corn yields high yields; it was a mistake to distribute corn crops in areas where it had never been cultivated before and could not produce high crops - in Belarus, the Baltic States, Tula, Leningrad regions etc.); in 1953 there were 3.5 million hectares under corn, and in 1955 - already 17.9 million hectares.

Decisions of the XX Congress in social policy:

a) to transfer all workers and employees during the VI Five-Year Plan to a 7-hour working day with a 6-day working week, from 1957 to begin the transfer of individual sectors of the economy to 5-day work week with an 8-hour work day;

b) increase volume housing construction by 2 times due to its transfer to industrial rails (transition to large-panel housing construction, when the elements of houses are produced at house-building factories, and at the construction site they are only assembled into a single whole). Khrushchev called for the creation of a socialist architectural style- durable, economical, beautiful. This is how “Khrushchev” houses appeared with separate apartments of a small area, but they were also a great joy for those who moved there from communal apartments and post-war barracks;

c) Khrushchev called for an increase production of household appliances and to expansion networks Catering to liberate the Soviet woman;

d) from September 1, 1956 canceled introduced in 1940 tuition fee in high schools, technical schools and universities;

d) it was decided raise the salary low-paid workers by 30% and increase minimum size pensions up to 350 rubles (since February 1, 1961 - 35 rubles); it was considered expedient that the salary of the heads of enterprises depended on the results achieved.

In the report of the Central Committee, the name of Stalin was mentioned with respect: the report was approved by the Bureau of the Presidium of the Central Committee, in which the majority was against exposing the cult of personality, primarily V. M. Molotov, G. M. Malenkov, K. E. Voroshilov, L. M. Kaganovich, themselves involved in mass repressions. Khrushchev believed that it was necessary to tell the truth and repent in order to restore the confidence of ordinary communists and the common people in the leadership of the party. Despite the objections of Stalin's associates, Khrushchev in the evening last day work of the congress (February 25) gathered closed session at which he made a presentation "About the cult of personality and its consequences", in which for the first time he openly connected "deviations from the Leninist norms of party life" and what was happening in the country lawlessness and arbitrariness with the name of Stalin. Khrushchev's speech was a courageous step, because he himself, implicitly believing Stalin, signed sanctions for the destruction of "enemies of the people."

The congress delegates learned for the first time about many things: about Lenin's characterization of Stalin in the supplement to the "Letter to the Congress"; that most of the delegates to the 17th Party Congress (1934) were killed for "counter-revolutionary crimes"; that the confessions of many prominent figures of the party and the state about their participation in sabotage and espionage were extorted from them under torture; about the falsification of Moscow litigation 30s; about torture with the permission of the Central Committee of the Party (Stalin's letter to the NKVD in 1937); that Stalin personally signed 383 "execution" lists; on violation of collective norms of leadership; about Stalin's gross miscalculations during the war, etc. By decision of the congress, a commission was formed to investigate the circumstances of the murder of Sergei Mironovich Kirov.

What we know today in all details came as a shock to the congress delegates. Khrushchev's report was classified for the Soviet people until 1989, although it was immediately published in the West. The text of the report was read out to the communists at closed party meetings; notes were not allowed. After such meetings, people were taken away with heart attacks. Many have lost faith in what they lived for (the suicide of the writer Alexander Fadeev in 1956 was caused, in particular, by this circumstance). The lack of clarity in assessing the Stalinist regime led to a pro-Stalinist demonstration of Georgian youth in Tbilisi in October 1956, who were shot.

Based on the decision of the XX Congress June 30, 1956 decision of the Central Committee "On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences". Stalin's "individual mistakes" were condemned there, but the system he created was not called into question, neither the names of those who were guilty of lawlessness (except for Beria), nor the facts of lawlessness themselves were named. It was stated that the cult of personality could not change the nature of our order. After this decision, mass rehabilitation illegally repressed. They were released without returning the confiscated property and were given compensation in the amount of 2 months of earnings before arrest. The executioners and scammers, meanwhile, continued to work in their places, avoiding punishment.

Task number 3. What decisions of the XX Congress of the CPSU, in principle, could not be taken under Stalin and why?
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE USSR

From the mid 50s. an era has begun scientific and technological revolution (NTR). First of all, it was expressed in the application atomic energy in peaceful purposes, as well as in the development outer space. In 1954, the world's first nuclear power plant, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, was put into operation; The nuclear icebreaker "Lenin" was put into operation. Scientific and technological revolution in the USSR developed within the framework of military-industrial complex.

October 4, 1957 launched the first artificial satellite Earth. In the USSR, more and more powerful samples of ballistic missiles were developed and tested. After test flights of the dogs Laika (without a descent vehicle), and then Belka and Strelka (returned to Earth) April 12, 1961 man flew into space for the first time Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin(left as a senior lieutenant, after 108 minutes of flight - 1 orbit around the Earth - landed as a major).

The era of scientific and technological revolution was accompanied by qualitatively new catastrophes. In 1957, a radioactive release occurred at the Mayak plant in the Chelyabinsk region, and the radioactive trace was not eliminated, and the consequences of contamination are still being felt. In 1960, it exploded at the start ballistic missile. Marshal M. I. Nedelin, several generals, hundreds of engineers, soldiers, and officers burned alive.

The oil and gas industry developed rapidly, oil and gas pipelines were built. Priority attention was paid to the construction of ferrous metallurgy enterprises.

In the mid 50s. it became clear that super-centralized management of the economy, when any minor issues are resolved only at the level of the ministry, does not justify itself and hinders the development of production. In addition, the ministries duplicated each other's activities. On the line of different ministries, counter-transportations of the same goods were carried out. In 1957, the economic reform began . The entire territory of the USSR was divided into 105 economic regions, in each of which territorial economic management bodies were established - tips National economy(sovnarkhozes). Each economic council included one or more regions and developed as a single economic system devoid of departmental contradictions. Economic councils got the right independent planning, could establish among themselves direct economic ties. The need for the existence of large all-Union ministries disappeared, about 60 ministries were liquidated, their functions were transferred to the economic councils; only 10 most important ones remained, which could not be divided (the Ministry of Defense, the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Communications, Communications, etc.).

In 1957-1958, when the ministries had already been abolished, and the economic councils had not yet been formed, the national economy worked most efficiently, as it got out of control and guardianship of the overgrown bureaucratic apparatus. Dissatisfaction with the economic council reform was primarily expressed by officials who lost their posts. Gradually, the employees of the abolished ministries became part of the apparatus of the economic councils or the branch departments of the State Planning Commission, and the number of bureaucratic apparatus that controlled the economy did not practically decrease.

Task number 4. What are the positive and negative sides economic reform in the USSR?

Enterprises in the 1950s appeared communist labor brigades, but the incentives were still only moral (a pennant for winning the competition), the salary was time-based - almost the same for both the leaders and the laggards.

In the field of agriculture, the reform was that in 1958 all equipment of state machine and tractor stations (MTS) was mandatory sold to collective farms. Only large rich farms benefited from this, for which it was convenient and profitable to maintain their own equipment. Most of the rest did not have the funds to either buy the equipment or maintain it, so when they were forced to buy the equipment, they were on the verge of ruin. In addition, the machine operators did not want to move to the collective farms along with the equipment and looked for other jobs in the city so as not to worsen their standard of living. The bankrupt collective farms were written off their debts and turned into state farms - state-owned agricultural enterprises.

Khrushchev's visit to the USA once again convinced him of the need to develop corn (after visiting the fields of the farmer Garst, who grew hybrid corn). A new wave has begun corn campaign: corn was sown up to Yakutia and the Arkhangelsk region. The blame for the fact that it does not grow there was shifted to the local leadership (“they let things take their course”). At the same time, American varieties of corn gave good yields in Ukraine, the Kuban and other regions. southern regions countries.

At the end of the 50s. The 1st secretary of the Ryazan regional party committee, Larionov, announced that he would increase meat procurement in the region by 3 times in one year. As a result, all collective-farm dairy cattle of the region, cattle confiscated from the population, and cattle bought in other regions with huge bank loans were put to slaughter. The next year there was a sharp drop in the level of agricultural production in the Ryazan and neighboring regions. Larionov shot himself.

Khrushchev personally traveled around the country and supervised agriculture. FROM 1958 started again struggle with personal subsidiary farms. Collective farmers trading in the markets were called speculators and parasites. Citizens were forbidden to keep livestock. In the mid 50s. private farms provided 50% of the meat produced in the country, in 1959 - only 20%. Another campaign was the fight against squandering on a state scale (“you don’t need to make museums wherever Pushkin has been”).

In 1957 were expanded budgetary rights of the union republics, they were partially transferred to the functions of the State Planning Commission. By the end of the 50s. began equalization of the pace of their development. Industry development in Central Asia and Kazakhstan was provided with labor from central regions Russia, and among the local population, traditionally employed in agriculture, there was unemployment. Lands between the republics of Central Asia were redistributed without taking into account the national composition of the inhabitants and their desires. All this became the basis for interethnic conflicts in the future. AT 1954 Crimea was transferred from the RSFSR to Ukraine in commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The decision of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU was not even supported by an official act of state bodies.

By the end of 1958, there were failures in the implementation of the Sixth Five-Year Plan. AT January 1959 took place XXI (Extraordinary) Congress of the CPSU, who took seven year plan development of the national economy for 1959–1965. (the last 2 years of the 6th Five-Year Plan + the 7th Five-Year Plan) to establish a long-term perspective of economic planning. The seven-year plan provided for: an increase in industrial output by 80% (actual fulfillment - 84%), an increase in agricultural production by 70% (actual fulfillment - 15%). By the end of the seven-year plan, it was planned to overtake and overtake the United States in per capita agricultural production, and by 1970 in industrial production.

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (1985-1991), President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (March 1990 - December 1991).
General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (March 11, 1985 - August 23, 1991), first and last President USSR (March 15, 1990 - December 25, 1991).

Head of the Gorbachev Foundation. Since 1993, co-founder of CJSC Novaya Daily Newspaper (from the Moscow register).

Biography of Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev was born on March 2, 1931 in the village. Privolnoye, Krasnogvardeisky district Stavropol Territory. Father: Sergei Andreevich Gorbachev. Mother: Maria Panteleevna Gopkalo.

In 1945, M. Gorbachev began working as an assistant combine operator, together with by his father. In 1947, 16-year-old combine harvester Mikhail Gorbachev received the Order of the Red Banner of Labor for high grain production.

In 1950 M. Gorbachev graduated from high school with a silver medal. Immediately went to Moscow and entered the Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov at the Faculty of Law.
In 1952 M. Gorbachev joined the CPSU.

In 1953 Gorbachev married Raisa Maksimovna Titarenko, a student of the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University.

In 1955 he graduated from the university, he was given a referral to the regional prosecutor's office of Stavropol.

In Stavropol, Mikhail Gorbachev first became deputy head of the department of agitation and propaganda of the Stavropol regional committee of the Komsomol, after the 1st secretary of the Stavropol city committee of the Komsomol and finally the 2nd and 1st secretary of the regional committee of the Komsomol.

Mikhail Gorbachev - party work

In 1962, Mikhail Sergeevich finally switched to party work. He received the post of party organizer of the Stavropol Territorial Production Agricultural Administration. Due to the fact that N. Khrushchev's reforms are underway in the USSR, great attention is paid to agriculture. M. Gorbachev entered the correspondence department of the Stavropol Agricultural Institute.

In the same year, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev was appointed head of the department of organizational and party work of the Stavropol rural regional committee of the CPSU.
In 1966 he was elected First Secretary of the Stavropol City Party Committee.

In 1967 he received a diploma from the Stavropol Agricultural Institute.

The years 1968-1970 were marked by the successive election of Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, first as the 2nd and then as the 1st secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee of the CPSU.

In 1971, Gorbachev was admitted to the Central Committee of the CPSU.

In 1978, he received the post of Secretary of the CPSU for the agro-industrial complex.

In 1980, Mikhail Sergeevich became a member of the Politburo of the CPSU.

In 1985, Gorbachev took the post of General Secretary of the CPSU, that is, he became the head of state.

In the same year, the annual meetings of the leader of the USSR with the President of the United States and leaders of foreign countries resumed.

Gorbachev's perestroika

The period of Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev's rule is usually associated with the end of the era of the so-called Brezhnev's "stagnation" and with the beginning of "perestroika" - a concept familiar to the whole world.

The first event of the General Secretary was a large-scale anti-alcohol campaign (officially launched on May 17, 1985). Alcohol in the country rose sharply in price, its sale was limited. Vineyards were cut down. All this led to the fact that the people began to poison themselves with moonshine and all kinds of alcohol surrogates, and the economy suffered more losses. In response, Gorbachev puts forward the slogan "accelerate socio-economic development."

The main events of Gorbachev's reign were as follows:
On April 8, 1986, at a speech in Tolyatti at the Volga Automobile Plant, Gorbachev first uttered the word "perestroika", it became the slogan of the beginning new era in the USSR.
On May 15, 1986, a campaign began to intensify the fight against unearned income (the fight against tutors, flower sellers, drivers).
The anti-alcohol campaign, which began on May 17, 1985, led to a sharp increase in prices for alcoholic beverages, cutting down vineyards, the disappearance of sugar in stores and the introduction of cards for sugar, and an increase in life expectancy among the population.
The main slogan was - acceleration associated with promises to dramatically increase the industry and the welfare of the people in a short time.
The reform of power, the introduction of elections to the Supreme Council and local councils on an alternative basis.
Glasnost, the actual removal of party censorship of the media.
Suppression of local ethnic conflicts in which the authorities took tough measures (dispersal of demonstrations in Georgia, forceful dispersal of a youth rally in Alma-Ata, entry of troops into Azerbaijan, unfolding of a long-term conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, suppression of separatist aspirations of the Baltic republics).
During the Gorbachev period of government, there was a sharp decrease in the reproduction of the population of the USSR.
Disappearance of products from stores, hidden inflation, the introduction of a rationing system for many types of food in 1989. As a result of pumping the Soviet economy with non-cash rubles, hyperinflation occurred.
Under M.S. Gorbachev, the external debt of the USSR reached a record high. Debts were taken by Gorbachev under high interest at different countries. With debts, Russia was able to pay off only 15 years after his removal from power. The gold reserves of the USSR decreased tenfold: from over 2,000 tons to 200.

Gorbachev's politics

Reform of the CPSU, the abolition of the one-party system and removal from the CPSU constitutional status of "leading and organizing force".
Rehabilitation of victims Stalinist repressions, not rehabilitated at .
Weakening of control over the socialist camp (Sinatra Doctrine). Led to a change of power in most socialist countries, the unification of Germany in 1990. The end of the Cold War in the United States is regarded as a victory for the American bloc.
Cessation of the war in Afghanistan and withdrawal Soviet troops, 1988-1989
The introduction of Soviet troops against People's Front Azerbaijan in Baku, January 1990, the result - more than 130 dead, including women and children.
Concealment from the public of the facts of the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant April 26, 1986

In 1987, open criticism of Mikhail Gorbachev's actions began from outside.

In 1988, at the XIX Party Conference of the CPSU, the resolution "On Glasnost" was officially adopted.

In March 1989, for the first time in the history of the USSR, free elections were held people's deputies, as a result of which not party proteges were admitted to power, but representatives of various trends in society.

In May 1989 Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In the same year, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan began. In October, through the efforts of Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, the Berlin Wall was destroyed and Germany was reunited.

In December, in Malta, as a result of a meeting between Gorbachev and George W. Bush, the heads of state announced that their countries were no longer adversaries.

For successes and breakthroughs in foreign policy there is a serious crisis within the USSR itself. By 1990, food shortages had increased. Local performances began in the republics (Azerbaijan, Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia).

Gorbachev President of the USSR

In 1990, M. Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR at the III Congress of People's Deputies. In the same year, in Paris, the USSR, as well as the countries of Europe, the USA and Canada, signed the "Charter for a New Europe", which actually marked the end of the "cold war" that had lasted fifty years.

In the same year, most of the republics of the USSR declared their state sovereignty.

In July 1990, Mikhail Gorbachev ceded his post as chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to Boris Yeltsin.

November 7, 1990 there was an unsuccessful attempt on M. Gorbachev.
The same year brought him Nobel Prize peace.

In August 1991, an attempted coup d'état (the so-called GKChP) was made in the country. The state began to rapidly disintegrate.

December 8, 1991 in Belovezhskaya Pushcha(Belarus) a meeting of the presidents of the USSR, Belarus and Ukraine was held. They signed a document on the liquidation of the USSR and the creation of the Commonwealth independent states(CIS).

In 1992 M.S. Gorbachev took over International Foundation socio-economic and political research ("Gorbachev-Fund").

1993 brought new post- president of the international environmental organization"Green Cross".

In 1996, Gorbachev decided to take part in the presidential elections, the social and political movement "Civil Forum" was created. In the 1st round of voting, he is eliminated from the elections with less than 1% of the vote.

She died of cancer in 1999.

In 2000, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev became the leader of the Russian United Social Democratic Party, chairman of the NTV Public Supervisory Board.

In 2001, Gorbachev began filming documentary about the politicians of the 20th century, whom he personally interviewed.

In the same year, his Russian United Social Democratic Party merged with Russian party Social Democracy (RPSD) K. Titov, the Social Democratic Party of Russia was formed.

In March 2003, M. Gorbachev's book "The Facets of Globalization" was published, written by several authors under his leadership.
Gorbachev was married 1 time. Wife: Raisa Maksimovna, nee Titarenko. Children: Irina Gorbacheva (Virganskaya). Granddaughters - Ksenia and Anastasia. Great-granddaughter - Alexandra.

Years of Gorbachev's rule - results

The activities of Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev as head of the CPSU and the USSR are associated with a large-scale attempt to reform in the USSR - perestroika, which ended in collapse Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. The period of M. Gorbachev's reign is estimated by researchers and contemporaries ambiguously.
Conservative politicians criticize him for the economic ruin, the collapse of the Union and other consequences of the perestroika he invented.

Radical politicians blamed him for the inconsistency of the reforms and the attempt to preserve the old administrative-command system and socialism.
Many Soviet, post-Soviet and foreign politicians and journalists positively evaluated Gorbachev's reforms, democracy and glasnost, the end of the Cold War, and the unification of Germany. The evaluation of M. Gorbachev's activities abroad of the former Soviet Union is more positive and less controversial than in the post-Soviet space.

List of works written by M. Gorbachev:
"A Time for Peace" (1985)
"The Coming Century of Peace" (1986)
Peace Has No Alternative (1986)
Moratorium (1986)
"Selected Speeches and Articles" (vols. 1-7, 1986-1990)
"Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and for the World" (1987)
"August coup. Causes and Effects (1991)
“December-91. My position "(1992)
"Years of Difficult Decisions" (1993)
"Life and Reforms" (2 volumes, 1995)
"Reformers are never happy" (dialogue with Zdeněk Mlynář, in Czech, 1995)
"I want to warn ..." (1996)
"Moral Lessons of the 20th Century" in 2 volumes (dialogue with D. Ikeda, in Japanese, German, French, 1996)
"Reflections on the October Revolution" (1997)
“New thinking. Politics in the Age of Globalization” (co-authored with V. Zagladin and A. Chernyaev, in German, 1997)
"Reflections on the Past and Future" (1998)
"Understanding Perestroika... Why It Matters Now" (2006)

During his reign, Gorbachev received the nicknames "Bear", "Hunchbacked", "Tagged Bear", "Mineral Secretary", "Lemonade Joe", "Gorby".
Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev played himself in Wim Wenders' feature film So Far, So Close! (1993) and participated in a number of other documentaries.

In 2004, he received a Grammy for voice acting. musical fairy tale Sergei Prokofiev's "Peter and the Wolf" with Sophia Loren and Bill Clinton.

Mikhail Gorbachev has received many prestigious foreign awards and prizes:
Prize to them. Indira Gandhi for 1987
Golden Dove for Peace Award for contributions to peace and disarmament, Rome, November 1989.
Peace Prize. Albert Einstein for his great contribution to the struggle for peace and understanding among peoples (Washington, June 1990)
Honorary Prize "Historical figure" of an influential religious organization in the United States - "Conscience Appeal Foundation" (Washington, June 1990)
International Peace Prize Martin Luther King Jr. For a World Without Violence 1991
Benjamin M. Cardoso Prize for Democracy (New York, USA, 1992)
International Prize "Golden Pegasus" (Tuscany, Italy, 1994)
King David Prize (USA, 1997) and many others.
He was awarded the following orders and medals: Order of the Red Banner of Labor, 3 Orders of Lenin, Order of the October Revolution, Order of the Badge of Honor, Gold Commemorative Medal of Belgrade (Yugoslavia, March 1988), Silver Medal of the Seimas of the People's Republic of Poland for outstanding contribution to the development and strengthening international cooperation, friendship and interaction between Poland and the USSR (Poland, July 1988), Commemorative medal of the Sorbonne, Rome, Vatican, USA, "Star of the Hero" (Israel, 1992), Gold medal of Thessaloniki (Greece, 1993), Gold Badge of the University of Oviedo (Spain, 1994), Republic of Korea, Order of the Association of Latin American Unity in Korea "Grand Cross of Simon Bolivar for unity and freedom" (Republic of Korea, 1994).

Gorbachev is a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Agatha (San Marino, 1994) and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Liberty (Portugal, 1995).

Speaking at various universities around the world, with lectures in the form of stories about the USSR, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev also has honorary titles and honorary degrees, mainly as a good herald and peacemaker.

He is also an Honorary Citizen of many foreign cities, including Berlin, Florence, Dublin, etc.