Partial disorder of the writing process is called. Kornev A.N.

DYSGRAPHY - partial specific violation of the writing process.

R.I Lalaeva: dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to lack of formation

higher mental functions.

A.N. Kornev: dysgraphia is a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics, despite enough level intellectual and speech

development and absence of severe visual and hearing impairments.

Sadovnikova I.N.: dysgraphia is a partial writing disorder, the main symptom of which is the presence of persistent specific errors.

Sirotyuk A.L. : dysgraphia - a partial violation of writing skills with focal lesions, underdevelopment, dysfunction of the cerebral cortex

Allocate:

agraphia - complete inability to master the letter or its loss.

dysgraphia - writing is disturbed, but it functions as a means of communication.

S.F. Ivanenko identified the following four groups of writing disorders, taking into account the age of children, the stage of learning to read and write, the severity of impairments and the specifics of their manifestations.

1. Difficulties in mastering writing. Indicators: fuzzy knowledge of all letters of the alphabet; difficulties in translating a sound into a letter and vice versa, when translating a printed graffeme into a written one; difficulties of sound-letter analysis and synthesis; reading individual syllables with clearly learned printed characters; writing under the dictation of individual letters. They are diagnosed in the first half of the first year of study.

Violation of the formation of the writing process. Indicators: mixing of written and printed letters on various grounds (optical, motor); difficulties in retaining and reproducing the semantic alphabetic row; difficulty in merging letters into syllables and merging syllables into a word; reading letter by letter; writing off written letters from printed text is already being carried out, but independent writing is in the process of formation. Typical mistakes in writing: writing words without vowels, merging several words or splitting them. It is diagnosed in the second half of the first and at the beginning of the second year of study.

3. Dysgraphia. Indicators: persistent errors of the same or different types. It is diagnosed in the second half of the second year of study.

4. Dysorphography. Indicators: inability to apply spelling rules in writing according to school curriculum for the corresponding period of study; a large number of spelling errors in written works Oh. Diagnosed in the third year of study.

Etiology:

1) a delay in the formation of functional systems important for writing (visual, motor, auditory), which, in turn, is due to harmful effects in the prenatal, natal, postnatal period or may be hereditary.

2) violation oral speech organic genesis.

3) difficulties in the formation of a functional asymmetry of the hemispheres in a child.

4) a delay in the child's awareness of the body schema.

5) violation of the perception of space and time.

The most detailed causes of violations in children writing analyzed by A.N. Root. In the etiology of writing disorders, the author distinguishes three groups of phenomena:

1. Constitutional prerequisites: individual features of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of writing disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.

2. Encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful effects in the periods of pre-, pre- and postnatal development. Damage at the early stages of ontogenesis often causes abnormalities in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (birth and postnatal development) affects the higher cortical regions of the brain to a greater extent. Exposure to harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems. The uneven development of brain structures has a negative effect on the formation of functional systems of the psyche. The functional immaturity of the right hemisphere can manifest itself in the insufficiency of spatial representations, the violation of the order of reproduction of auditory-speech and visual standards.

3. Unfavorable social and environmental factors. The author refers to them:

Mismatch of actual maturity with the beginning of literacy. The volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child's capabilities; discrepancy between the methods and pace of teaching the individual characteristics of the child

Thus, difficulties in mastering writing arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: biological insufficiency of the brain systems arising on this basis of functional insufficiency; environmental conditions that place increased demands on retarded or immature mental functions.

Symptoms:

Lalaeva R.I. highlights the following errors in dysgraphia:

Distorted spelling of letters

Replacing handwritten letters that have a graphic similarity

Replacement of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds

Distortion of the sound-letter structure of words (permutations, omissions, additions of letters, syllables)

Distortion of the structure of the sentence (separate spelling of words, continuous spelling of words)

Agrammatisms in writing

Sadovnikova I.N. identifies 3 groups of errors:

Errors at the level of letters and syllables (errors in sound analysis - omissions, permutations, insertions; errors in phonemic perception, confusion of letters by kinesthetic similarity)

Errors at the word level (violation of the individualization of words - separate writing of parts of words, continuous writing of parts of several words, displacement of word boundaries)

Errors at the sentence level (agrammatisms, lack of designation of sentence boundaries)

Pedagogical classification of dysgraphia by R.I Lalayeva:

1) articulatory-acoustic

may occur in children who have or have had defects in sound pronunciation. Defective pronunciation of sounds, and if it is overcome, residual inferior kinesthetic sensations and representations cause difficulties in differentiating the articulatory signs of sound by the child, preventing it from being successfully correlated with the corresponding letter. sounds and sound-letter structuring of words (for example: the zouk fell down and can’t get up, if someone will help him).

2) dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition (acoustic)

is associated with an insufficient level of functioning of the operations of a complex process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes. In the event of a violation of any of the operations (auditory analysis, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control), the entire process of phonemic recognition suffers. In oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly, on the letter manifests itself in the form of mixtures or even complete replacements of letters in the letter (for example: a heron-heron). This type of dysgraphia also manifests itself in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants, due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (for example: loves-lubit). Frequent mistakes are the replacement of vowels, even in a stressed position (for example, cloud-tocha, forest-fox).

3) dysgraphia due to violations of language analysis and synthesis

may be defective different types these two operations, that is, the division of a sentence into words and the synthesis of sentences from words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. In writing, this dysgraphia manifests itself in the distortion of the structure of words and sentences, that is, omissions and permutations, adding letters, syllables, words, merging or breaking words, the most typical errors are the following: omissions of consonants during their confluence (for example: dictation-dicant), omissions of vowels (for example: dog-dog), rearrangement of letters (for example: trail-trapo), adding letters (for example: dragged, pulled), permutation of syllables, additions, omissions (for example: room-comta), violations of the division of a sentence into words, with this type of digraphy manifests itself in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions with other words (for example: it's raining-idedosh), the separate spelling of the word is also characteristic, the separate spelling of prefixes and the root of the word (for example: on stepped).

4) agrammatic dysgraphia

is associated with the underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech in children, the lack of formation of morphological and syntactic generalizations. morphological structure words, violation of word agreement, distortion of prepositional case constructions, omissions of sentence members. case endings(for example: many trees), violation of prepositional constructions, change in the case of pronouns (for example: near him-near them), errors in the number of nouns (for example: children run), violation of agreement (for example, white house). There are violations of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulty of constructing complex sentences, the omission of sentence members, violations of the sequence of words in a sentence.

It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in the mixing or omission of letters, in the distortion of the sound-syllabic composition of the word and the structure of sentences. In the case of unformed reading and writing processes (during training), they speak of alexia and agraphia.

Writing and reading disorders in children are caused by difficulties in mastering the skills necessary for the full implementation of these processes. According to researchers, these difficulties are caused by defects in oral speech (with the exception of optical forms), the unformedness of sound analysis operations, and the instability of voluntary attention.

Writing and reading disorders in children must be distinguished from the loss of writing and reading skills, i.e., dyslexia (alexia) and dysgraphia (agraphia) that occur with aphasia.

Thus, 11 forms of speech disorders are distinguished in speech therapy, 9 of them are oral speech disorders at different stages of its generation and implementation, and 2 forms are written speech disorders, distinguished depending on the disturbed process. Oral speech disorders: dysphonia(aphonia), tachyllalia, bradilalia, stuttering, dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria(anartria), alalia, aphasia. Writing disorders: dyslexia(alexia) and dysgraphia(agraphia).

This classification includes only those forms of speech disorders that are identified in speech therapy literature and for which methods have been developed. Within each of the forms of speech disorders, there are types and subspecies, which are reflected in subsequent chapters. In this regard, it should be pointed out that in some cases, types of violations related to one form do not represent an option, but a separate violation. For example, dyslexia includes, on the one hand, articulatory-phonetic disorders, i.e., defects in the actual sound realization of speech, related to the level speech norm, and on the other hand, phonemic disorders due to the lack of formation of operations that select sounds, and related to the level of structural (linguistic) formulation of the utterance.

The noted inconsistency in classification has become especially noticeable in the modern period of the development of science in connection with increased knowledge of speech (psychological and physiological) mechanisms and new research in speech therapy. Each new stage in the development of science and new knowledge require the introduction of corrective ideas into the previous ideas, therefore, further development of the classification of speech disorders remains an urgent task of speech therapy.

Psychological and pedagogical classification arose as a result of a critical analysis of the clinical classification in terms of its applicability in pedagogical process what is the logopedic effect. Such an analysis turned out to be necessary in connection with the orientation of speech therapy to the education and upbringing of children with speech development disorders.

The attention of researchers was directed to the development of methods speech therapy impact to work with a team of children ( study group, class). To do this, it was necessary to find the general manifestations of the defect at different forms abnormal speech development in children, especially those relevant to remedial learning. This approach required a different principle of grouping violations: not from the general to the particular, but from the particular to the general. This made it possible to build it on the basis of linguistic and psychological criteria, among which the structural components of the speech system are taken into account (sound side, grammatical structure, vocabulary), functional aspects of speech, the ratio of types speech activity(oral and written).

- partial disorder of the writing process associated with insufficient formation (or decay) of mental functions involved in the implementation and control of written speech. Dysgraphia is manifested by persistent, typical and repetitive writing errors that do not disappear on their own, without targeted training. Diagnosis of dysgraphia includes analysis of written works, examination of oral and written speech special technique. Corrective work to overcome dysgraphia requires the elimination of violations of sound pronunciation, development phonemic processes, vocabulary, grammar, coherent speech, non-speech functions.

ICD-10

R48.8 Other and unspecified disorders of recognition and understanding of symbols and signs

General information

Dysgraphia - specific shortcomings of writing caused by a violation of the HMF involved in the process of writing. According to studies, dysgraphia is detected in 53% of second grade students and 37-39% of middle school students, which indicates the stability of this form of speech impairment. The high prevalence of dysgraphia among schoolchildren is associated with the fact that about half of kindergarten graduates enter the first grade with FFN or OHP, in the presence of which the process of full literacy is impossible.

According to the severity of disorders of the writing process in speech therapy, dysgraphia and agraphia are distinguished. In dysgraphia, writing is distorted but continues to function as a means of communication. Agraphia is characterized by a primary inability to master writing skills, their complete loss. Since writing and reading are inextricably linked, a writing disorder (dysgraphia, agraphia) is usually accompanied by a reading disorder (dyslexia, alexia).

Causes of dysgraphia

Mastering the process of writing is closely related to the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech: sound pronunciation, phonemic perception, lexical and grammatical side of speech, coherent speech. Therefore, the development of dysgraphia may be based on the same organic and functional causes that cause dyslalia, alalia, dysarthria, aphasia, delayed psychoverbal development.

Underdevelopment or damage to the brain in the prenatal, natal, postnatal periods can lead to the subsequent appearance of dysgraphia: pathology of pregnancy, birth trauma, asphyxia, meningitis and encephalitis, infections and severe somatic diseases that cause exhaustion nervous system child.

Socio-psychological factors contributing to the occurrence of dysgraphia include bilingualism (bilingualism) in the family, fuzzy or incorrect speech of others, lack of speech contacts, inattention to the child’s speech by adults, unjustified early learning literate child in the absence of psychological readiness. The risk group for the occurrence of dysgraphia is children with a constitutional predisposition, various speech disorders, ZPR.

Dysgraphia or agraphia in adults is most often caused by traumatic brain injuries, strokes, brain tumors, and neurosurgical interventions.

Mechanisms of dysgraphia

Writing is a complex multi-level process, in the implementation of which various analyzers participate: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual, motor, which carry out the sequential translation of the article into a phoneme, phonemes into a grapheme, graphemes into a kineme. The key to successful mastery of writing is a sufficiently high level of development of oral speech. However, unlike oral speech, written speech can develop only under the condition of purposeful learning.

In accordance with modern concepts, the pathogenesis of dysgraphia in children is associated with the untimely formation of the process of lateralization of brain functions, including the establishment of the cerebral hemisphere, which is dominant in controlling speech functions. Normally, these processes should be completed by the beginning of schooling. In the case of a delay in lateralization and the presence of a latent left-handedness in a child, cortical control over the writing process is violated. With dysgraphia, there is an unformed HMF (perception, memory, thinking), emotional-volitional sphere, visual analysis and synthesis, optical-spatial representations, phonemic processes, syllabic analysis and synthesis, the lexico-grammatical aspect of speech.

From the point of view of psycholinguistics, the mechanisms of dysgraphia are considered as a violation of the operations of generating a written statement: intent and internal programming, lexico-grammatical structuring, dividing a sentence into words, phonemic analysis, correlation of a phoneme with a grapheme, motor implementation of writing under visual and kinesthetic control.

Dysgraphia classification

Depending on the lack of formation or violation of a particular operation of writing, 5 forms of dysgraphia are distinguished:

• articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired articulation, sound pronunciation and phonemic perception;
• acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired phonemic recognition;
• dysgraphia on the basis of unformed language analysis and synthesis;
• agrammatic dysgraphia associated with underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical side of speech;
• optical dysgraphia associated with the lack of formation of visual-spatial representations.

Along with "pure" forms of dysgraphia, in speech therapy practice mixed forms are found.

The modern classification distinguishes:

I. Specific writing disorders:

1. Dysgraphia:

• 1.1. Dysphonological dysgraphia (parallic, phonemic).
• 1.2. Metalinguistic dysgraphia (dyspraxic or motor, dysgraphia due to impaired language operations).

• 2.1. Morphological dysorphography.
• 2.2. Syntactic dysorphographies.

II. Non-specific writing disorders associated with pedagogical neglect, ZPR, UO, etc.

Symptoms of dysgraphia

Signs that characterize dysgraphia include typical and persistent errors in writing that are not related to ignorance of the rules and norms of the language. Typical errors that occur in various types of dysgraphia can be manifested by mixing and replacing graphically similar handwritten letters (sh-sh, t-sh, v-d, m-l) or phonetically similar sounds in writing (b–p, d–t, d–k, w-g); distortion of the letter-syllabic structure of the word (omissions, permutations, addition of letters and syllables); violation of the unity and separation of the spelling of words; agrammatisms in writing (violation of inflection and agreement of words in a sentence). In addition, with dysgraphia, children write slowly, their handwriting is usually difficult to distinguish. There may be fluctuations in the height and slope of letters, slippage from the line, replacement of uppercase letters by lowercase letters and vice versa. One can speak about the presence of dysgraphia only after the child masters the technique of writing, that is, not earlier than 8–8.5 years.

In the case of articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, specific errors in writing are associated with incorrect sound pronunciation (both pronouncing and writing). In this case, substitutions and omissions of letters in writing repeat the corresponding sound errors in oral speech. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia occurs with polymorphic dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria (i.e., in children with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment of speech).

With acoustic dysgraphia, sound pronunciation is not impaired, however phonemic perception insufficiently formed. Errors in writing are in the nature of substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically similar sounds (whistling - hissing, voiced - deaf and vice versa, affricate - their components).

Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of linguistic analysis and synthesis is characterized by a violation of the division of words into syllables, and sentences into words. With this form of dysgraphia, the student skips, repeats or rearranges letters and syllables; writes extra letters in a word or does not finish the end of words; writes words with prepositions together, and with prefixes separately. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis is most common among schoolchildren.

Agrammatic dysgraphia is characterized by multiple agrammatisms in writing: incorrect change of words in cases, genders and numbers; violation of the agreement of words in a sentence; violation of prepositional constructions (incorrect sequence of words, omissions of sentence members, etc.). Agrammatic dysgraphia usually accompanies a general underdevelopment of speech due to alalia, dysarthria.

With optical dysgraphia, graphically similar letters are replaced or mixed in writing. If the recognition and reproduction of isolated letters is impaired, one speaks of literal optical dysgraphia; if the inscription of letters in a word is violated, - about verbal optical dysgraphia. To common mistakes encountered in optical dysgraphia include underwriting or adding elements of letters (l instead of m; x instead of w and vice versa), mirror writing of letters.

Quite often, with dysgraphia, non-verbal symptoms are detected: neurological disorders, decreased performance, distractibility, hyperactivity, memory loss, etc.

Diagnosis of dysgraphia

To identify the organic causes of dysgraphia, as well as to exclude visual and hearing defects that can lead to writing disorders, consultations of a neurologist (pediatric neurologist), ophthalmologist (children's oculist), otolaryngologist (children's ENT) are necessary. An examination of the level of formation of speech function is carried out by a speech therapist.

Forecast and prevention of dysgraphia

To overcome dysgraphia, the coordinated work of a speech therapist, teacher, neurologist, child and his parents (or an adult patient) is required. Since writing disorders do not disappear on their own in the process of schooling, children with dysgraphia should receive speech therapy help at the school speech center.

Prevention of dysgraphia should begin even before the child begins to learn to read and write. It is necessary to include in preventive work the purposeful development of HMF, which contribute to the normal mastery of the processes of writing and reading, sensory functions, spatial representations, auditory and visual differentiation, constructive praxis, and graphomotor skills. Importance has a timely correction of violations of oral speech, overcoming phonetic, phonetic-phonemic and general underdevelopment of speech.

A difficult problem is the issue of assessing the progress in the Russian language of children with dysgraphia. During the corrective work it is advisable to carry out a joint check of tests in the Russian language by a teacher and a speech therapist, highlighting specific dysgraphic errors that should not be taken into account when grading.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific violation of the writing process. It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in the mixing or omission of letters, in the distortion of the sound-syllabic composition of the word and the structure of sentences.

In the classroom, it is recommended, based on the results of the diagnosis, to implement a system of remedial training to overcome violations of written speech. Dysgraphia sessions should not become an endless process of writing or rewriting. It is necessary to provide a variety of speech practice for students - for the development of language ability and observation, for the formation of speech communication skills. For these purposes, there are a variety of exercises, most of which are performed orally with a clearly organized system of signals. feedback(cards, symbols, digital series, ball and clapping actions, etc.), that is, to some extent, we form writing operations without a notebook and a pen. Entertaining speech material should also help relieve tension and fear of writing in children who feel their own inadequacy in graph-lexical activity, and create a positive emotional mood in children during the lesson.

Written speech is one of the forms of the existence of a language, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of existence of the language. For various forms of linguistic activity, both oral and written speech can be primary (compare folklore and fiction). If oral speech singled out a person from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulation, transmission and processing of information, but it changed the person himself, in particular his ability to think abstractly.

The concept of written speech includes reading and writing as equal components. “Writing is a sign system of fixing speech, which allows using graphic elements to transmit information at a distance and fix it in time. Any writing system is characterized by a constant composition of signs.

Russian writing refers to alphabetic writing systems. The alphabet marked the transition to symbols of higher orders and determined the progress in development abstract thinking, allowing to make speech and thinking objects of knowledge. “Only writing allows you to go beyond the limited spatial and temporal framework of speech communication, as well as preserve the impact of speech even in the absence of one of the partners. This is how the historical dimension of social self-consciousness arises.

Both oral and written forms of speech are a kind of temporary connections of the second signal system, but, unlike oral, written speech is formed only in conditions of purposeful learning, i.e. its mechanisms are formed during the period of literacy and are improved in the course of all further education. As a result of reflex repetition, a dynamic stereotype of the word is formed in the unity of acoustic, optical and kinesthetic stimuli (L. S. Vygotsky, B. G. Ananiev). Mastering written speech is the establishment of new connections between the word heard and spoken, the word visible and written, because. the process of writing is ensured by the coordinated work of four analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual and motor.

A.R. Luria defined reading as special form impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing (in any of its forms) begins with a certain idea, the preservation of which contributes to the inhibition of all extraneous tendencies (running ahead, repetitions, etc.). Actually, writing includes a number of special operations:

· Analysis of the sound composition of the word to be recorded. The first condition for writing is to determine the sequence of sounds in a word. The second is the refinement of sounds, i.e. the transformation of sound variants audible at the moment into clear generalized speech sounds-phonemes. At first, both of these processes proceed completely consciously, in the future they are automated. Acoustic analysis and synthesis proceed with the closest participation of articulation;

· Translation of phonemes (audible sounds) into graphemes, i.e. into visual schemes of graphic signs, taking into account the spatial arrangement of their elements;

· “recoding” of the visual schemes of letters into a kinetic system of successive movements necessary for recording (graphemes are translated into kinemes).

Recoding is carried out in the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex (parietal-temporal-occipital region). Morphologically, tertiary zones are finally formed on the 10th - 11th year of life. The motivational level of writing is provided by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Including them in a functional writing system ensures the creation of an idea that is held through inner speech.

Retention of information in memory is ensured by the holistic activity of the brain. As A.R. Luria, “the proportion of each of the writing operations does not remain constant at different stages of motor skill development. At the first stages, the main attention of the writer is directed to the sound analysis of the word, and sometimes to the search for the desired grapheme. In the developed skill of writing, these moments recede into the background. When writing well-automated words, writing turns into smooth kinetic stereotypes.

4.1 TYPES OF WRITING IN CORRECTIONAL WORK

During the first three years of study, students practice various types of writing, each of which has a certain significance for the formation of full-fledged writing skills, meeting the objectives of teaching, consolidating and testing relevant knowledge and skills. Consider certain types letters refracted in relation to the tasks of correctional work.

Copying: a) from a handwritten text, b) from a printed text, c) complicated by tasks of a logical and grammatical nature.

Copying as the simplest type of writing is most accessible to children with dysgraphia. Its value lies in the ability to coordinate the pace of reading the recorded material, its pronunciation and recording with the individual capabilities of children. It is necessary to teach children as early as possible to memorize the syllable, not the letter, when copying, which follows from the position on the syllable as the main unit of pronunciation and reading. Consequently, the correct syllable-by-syllable pronunciation, consistent with the tempo of writing, becomes the specific task of writing.

In cases where the child poorly learns this requirement, allows numerous omissions of letters, it is useful to offer words and texts for copying that are already divided into syllables by dashes.

From the first exercises in cheating, it is desirable to educate students in self-checking skills, for which the teacher, looking through the work, does not correct errors, but only marks them in the margins corresponding lines, offering the student to check his record with the text of the textbook, cards, boards.

In all types of writing, reading performs the function of control.

Auditory dictation with visual self-control corresponds to the principle of interaction of analyzers participating in the act of writing. After writing the auditory dictation, bypassing the students, the teacher notes and announces the number of mistakes of each of the students. For a few minutes, the text of the dictation, written on the board, is opened to correct errors. Students make corrections not with a pen, but with a colored pencil to distinguish them from corrections that may have taken place during the writing of the dictation. When checking the work, the teacher notes the number of corrected errors, writing this number as a fraction: 5/3, that is, three out of five errors were corrected. Such tasks gradually accustom children to rereading, checking what they write. The teacher, keeping records of mistakes, can assess the dynamics in the development of this skill.

Selection speech material for auditory dictation for children with mental retardation, suffering from dysgraphia, it is not an easy task, since in any, the most simple text, something inaccessible to students at this stage of learning can be found.

This circumstance was the reason for the development of a new, non-traditional form of writing under auditory dictation - graphic dictation. This form most fully meets the task of checking the children's assimilation of the topics covered by differentiating mixed pairs of phonemes, that is, those that make up a significant part of the entire volume. speech therapy work when correcting dysgraphia.

Graphic dictation performs a control function, but is a sparing form of control, as it excludes other spellings from children's field of vision. The verification of the assimilation of what has been passed takes place in facilitated conditions, therefore it is not the last stage of control, like a regular text dictation, where the student faces many tasks at the same time. However, it is the graphic dictation that allows students to train students to distinguish between mixed sounds on words that are complex in sound composition, which cannot be included in text dictations. Here, as it were, the child's "ray of attention" narrows, concentrating on two mixed sounds, which he must distinguish from a rich sound range (word, phrase, text).

The graphic dictation is carried out as follows.

The children are tasked with identifying by ear only the sounds being studied, for example, voiced z and deaf s (cases of stunning a voiced consonant are not included in the text at this stage). Words that do not contain the indicated sounds are indicated by a dash when writing; containing one of the sounds are indicated by one corresponding letter; containing both sounds - by two letters in the sequence in which they follow in the composition of words. If one of the sounds is repeated twice in a word, then the letter is repeated twice. Thus, the dictated phrase: "In pine forest resinous smell "- in the entry it looks like this:" - ss with ss s.

During the graphic dictation, you should pronounce the words of the phrase separately. At the first listening, students bend their fingers according to the number of words. When re-reading, they write down, comparing the number of written symbols with the number of words in the sentence. Each sentence is written on a new line, since such a record does not contain capital letters and periods.

In addition to checking the main theme of the dictation, this type of work allows you to consolidate a number of other writing skills: students perceive by ear and reflect in the record the division of the text into sentences, sentences into words; learn to pick out prepositions. Graphic dictations expand the vocabulary of children, while with text recording, the choice of words is limited by the complexity of their writing.

Errors in graphic dictations come down to the following: omission of a dash word in a sentence; skipping a letter, especially if it occurs 2-3 times in a word. For example, when differentiating vowels i-s:

the word caught is marked and (instead of ii),

surprised - ii (instead of iii).

Errors of the first type are overcome with the help of a preliminary analysis of the phrase into words, selective naming of the second, fourth, first word. Students consciously strive to memorize each sentence. The volume of auditory memory is noticeably increased. Having made a mistake of the second type when checking the dictation, he must say the word aloud, "probing every sound." Gradually, the skill of accurate and quick analysis of the sound composition based on articulation is being improved.

A graphic record can also be used when fixing other topics of the correctional course.

Usually children willingly write all graphic dictations. New designations do not cause them any difficulties, since the principle of notation is the same for different topics.

4.2. DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF SPATIO-TIME REPRESENTATIONS

The sequence in time of sounds and syllables that make up a word, as well as the temporal sequence of words that make up a phrase, in writing is reflected in the corresponding spatial sequence of letters, syllables, words located on the lines of a notebook when writing. Exercises in determining the sequence in space and time create the basis for the education of sound-syllabic and morphemic analysis of words.

The starting point in the work on the development of spatial orientations is the children's awareness of the scheme own body, determination of directions in space, orientation in the surrounding "small" space. Next, students train in determining the sequence of objects or their images (for example, a series of subject pictures depicting fruits, animals, etc.), as well as graphic signs. Such tasks contribute to the training of the hand and gaze in sequential movement in a given direction.

The next most difficult task is to isolate one of the links in the chain of homogeneous objects, images, graphic signs. Such exercises create the prerequisites for the development of a positional analysis of sounds in words.

A peculiar continuation of the development of spatial differentiations is the study of the topic "Prepositions" (those that have a specific spatial meaning).

Finding out the range of students' temporal representations involves clarifying and activating the corresponding vocabulary, as well as propaedeutics of the assimilation of tenses of the verb.

Therefore, in the course of the lesson, it is necessary to include tasks and exercises that solve specific problems in the formation of spatial and temporal representations. Here are some examples of relevant tasks.

Checking and clarifying children's ideas about the body scheme.

Raise your "main" hand, name it (right).

Raise the other hand, name it (left).

Some children (left-handers) will have the opposite answers. It is good to consider such cases and note that the names of the hands remain generally accepted, which should be remembered.

According to the teacher's instructions, show, for example, the right eyebrow, the left elbow. Children should be exercised until they have a confident orientation in the scheme of their own body.

Sitting at the table, determine its right and left edges. Raise your hand to those students who are sitting at the right half of the table. Similarly - sitting on the left.

Writing disorders create significant barriers to literacy and lead to learning difficulties.

Traditionally, in speech therapy practice, written speech disorders are considered as a consequence of oral pathology (R.E. Levina, A.V. Yastrebova, L.F. Spirova, O.A. Tokareva, etc.). Recent studies indicate a close relationship between writing difficulties in younger schoolchildren and the lack of formation of non-verbal forms of mental processes (T.V. Akhutina, A.N. Kornev, and others). So, one of the components in the formation of writing skills is optical-spatial perception.

According to many experts, there is not a single type of activity of children that would not be influenced by spatial orientation. This is a complex activity that involves both the right and left hemispheres. Basic, early-forming functions are mainly associated with the work of the right hemisphere. Visual-motor coordination depends on it, the ability to correlate movement with vertical and horizontal coordinates, combine parts and remember their location. The left hemisphere solves more complex tasks related to subtle analysis and speech mediation. It analyzes details, parts and is not so successful in putting them together.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.

One of the most complex operations process of writing is the analysis of the sound structure of the word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. Sound analysis Words are processed by the joint activity of speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.

The following terms are mainly used to denote writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia.

The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.

In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical and grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simulative processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

O.A. Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia, there is a lack of differentiation in auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, replacement of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.

Optical dysgraphia is due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

Selected by M.E. Khvattsev's types of dysgraphia also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and defects phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of disorders of oral speech ("graphic tongue-tied tongue"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M.E. Khvattsev singles out and special form due to "experienced" tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of literacy or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M.E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a pronunciation rhythm disorder, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but it is difficult to form visual image words, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - sh, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions in the structure of words, sentences and is caused by the decay of oral speech due to organic brain damage.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many ways similar to the one identified by M.E. Khvattsev with dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that in internal pronunciation there is no sufficient reliance on correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes). According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced that denote the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c - s). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“writing”, “lubit”, “licking”). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in a stressed position, for example, o - y (tuma - "tocha"), e - and (forest - "foxes").

In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed, denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b - c, p - k). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no information about the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia consensus. This is due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of linguistic analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and sentence. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The following errors are most characteristic: omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation - "dikat", school - "cola"); omissions of vowels (dog - "dog", at home - "dma"); permutations of letters (path - “prota”, window - “kono”); adding letters (drag - "drag"); omissions, additions, permutation of syllables (room - “cat”, glass - “kata”).

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining - “godaddy”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word ( White birch grows by the window - “belabe will grow an eye”); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R.E. Levina, N.A. Nikashina, D.I. Orlova, G.V. Chirkina.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia (characterized in the works of R.E. Levina, I.K. Kolpovskaya, R.I. Lalayeva, S.B. Yakovlev). It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and in mentally retarded children.

In coherent written speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept - “swept”, kids - “goats”); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - “on the table”); changing the case of pronouns (near him - “near him”); number of nouns ("children are running"); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, and violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space

With literary dysgraphia, there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. With verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions and replacements of letters of an optical nature are observed. Optical dysgraphia also includes mirror writing, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.