Specific disorder of the writing process. Dysgraphia: definition, causes, symptoms and treatment
Manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.
Dysgraphia is a significant percentage of other speech disorders found in students of secondary schools. It is a serious obstacle in the acquisition of literacy by students at the initial stages of education, and at later stages in mastering the grammar of their native language.
Various terms are used in modern literature to refer to specific writing disorders. Partial impairment of writing is called dysgraphia, complete inability to write is called agraphia.
In a number of countries (for example, in the USA), reading and writing disorders are defined by the same term "dyslexia". In other countries, specific writing disorders are defined by the term "dysorphography" (for example, in France).
In domestic literature, the terms "dysgraphia" and "dysorphography" are opposed, i.e. are delimited.
For the differential diagnosis of these disorders, it is necessary to clarify the criteria on the basis of which errors in dysgraphia and dysorphography are distinguished. Such a main criterion is the principle of spelling, which is mainly violated. It is known that the following basic principles are distinguished in Russian orthography:
Phonetic (phonemic),
Morphological,
Traditional.
The phonetic (phonemic) principle of spelling is based on the sound (phonemic) analysis of speech.
Words are written as they are heard and pronounced (house, grass, ditch). The writer analyzes the sound composition of the word and designates sounds with certain letters. Thus, for the implementation of the phonemic principle of writing, the formation of phoneme differentiation and phonemic analysis is necessary.
The morphological principle is that the morphemes of words (root, prefix, suffix, ending) with the same meaning have the same spelling, although their pronunciation in a strong and weak position may be different (house - do (a) mA, table - one hundred ( a) ly). The use of the morphological principle involves the ability to determine the meaningful morphemes of a word, to determine morphological structure words, highlight morphemes with the same meaning, the pronunciation of which may differ in different phonetic conditions. The level of development of morphological analysis is closely related to the development of the vocabulary and grammatical structure of speech.
And, finally, the traditional principle presupposes such a spelling of the word that has developed in the history of the development of writing and cannot be explained by the phonetic or morphological principle of spelling.
Taking into account the principles of orthography, it can be concluded that dysgraphia is mainly associated with a violation of the implementation of the phonetic principle, and with dysorphography, the use of morphological and traditional spelling principles is violated.
Symptoms
In accordance with the definition of the term "dysgraphia", the following features of errors in dysgraphia can be distinguished:
1. As in dyslexia, errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish these errors from errors of “growth”, “physiological” (according to B.G. Ananiev) errors that naturally occur in children when mastering writing. At the same time, it should be noted that errors in dysgraphia are similar in appearance to the so-called physiological errors. However, in dysgraphia, these errors are more numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time.
2. Dysgraphic errors are associated with the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the process of writing - differentiation of phonemes by ear and pronunciation, analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.
Violation of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to writing disorders. But these writing disorders are not considered as dysgraphia.
Writing disorders in children (for example, with a delay mental development) can be associated with pedagogical neglect, with impaired attention, control, which disorganize the entire writing process as a complex speech activity. However, in this case, errors, if they are not associated with the unformedness of higher mental functions, are not specific, but variable in nature and therefore are not dysgraphic.
3. Mistakes in dysgraphia are characterized by a violation of the phonetic principle of writing, i.e. errors are observed in a strong phonetic position (paddle - instead of a shovel, dm - house), in contrast to spelling errors, which are observed only in a weak phonetic position (water - water, lady - at home).
4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic when they are observed in children school age.
In children preschool age the letter is accompanied by numerous errors, similar in nature and manifestation to dysgraphic ones. However, in preschool children, many of the mental functions that ensure the process of writing are still insufficiently formed. Therefore, these errors are natural, “physiological”.
The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished:
Distorted spelling of letters (for example, e - s, s - e)
Handwriting substitutions:
A) graphically similar (eg, c - d, l - m, c - w)
B) denoting phonetically similar sounds (eg, d - t, b - n, d - k)
3. Distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word: permutations, additions, perseverations, contamination of letters, syllables (for example, spring - spring, camp - country, coolbock - ball).
4. Distortion of the structure of the sentence: random spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words (for example, rooks fly from warm countries).
5. Agrammatisms in writing (for example, a lot of pencils, no keys, on branches).
Types of dysgraphia
Based on modern ideas about the essence of dysgraphia, the most significant criterion for classifying dysgraphia is the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process. Based on this criterion, the following types of dysgraphia can be distinguished:
This form of dysgraphia was identified by M.E. Khvattsev. In the classification of M.E. Khvattsev, it was designated as dysgraphia based on disorders oral speech, or "tongue-tied in writing."
The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds, which is reflected in the letter: the child writes the words as he pronounces them.
It is known that at the initial stages of mastering writing, a child
Often pronounces the words he writes down. Speaking can be loud, whispered, or internal. In the process of pronunciation, the sound structure of the word, the nature of sounds is specified.
A child with a violation of sound pronunciation fixes it in writing.
According to R.E. Levina, G.A. Kashe and others, pronunciation deficiencies are reflected in writing only when they are accompanied by a violation of auditory differentiation, unformed phonemic representations.
Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in mixtures, substitutions, omissions of letters, which correspond to mixtures, substitutions, and the absence of sounds in oral speech. This type of dysgraphia is predominantly observed in children with polymorphic impairment of sound pronunciation, especially with dysarthria, rhinolalia, sensory and sensorimotor dyslalia.
In a number of cases, substitutions of letters in writing persist in children even after the substitutions of sounds in oral speech have been eliminated. The reason for this is the lack of formation of kinesthetic images of sounds; during internal pronunciation, there is no reliance on correct articulation sounds.
It should be noted that a violation of sound pronunciation is not always reflected in writing, especially in cases where the auditory differentiation of sounds is well formed, and the replacement of sounds in oral speech is due to insufficient articulatory motility.
Dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition
(differentiation of phonemes)
According to traditional terminology - acoustic dysgraphia.
This type of dysgraphia is manifested in the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds, in violation of the designation of the softness of consonants in writing. More often, letters are mixed in writing, denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and the components that make up their composition (h - t, ch-sh, ts-t, ts-s, s-sh, s-zh, b- n, d-t, g-k, etc.), as well as vowels o-o, e-i.
Most often, the mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is associated with the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds, while the pronunciation of sounds is normal (a finer auditory differentiation is needed than for oral speech).
In other cases, children with this form of dysgraphia have an inaccuracy in the kinesthetic images of sounds, which prevents the correct choice of phoneme and its correlation with the letter.
Dysgraphia due to violation of language analysis and synthesis
The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of the following forms of language analysis and synthesis:
Analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis.
The unformedness of the analysis of sentences into words is found in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions;
In separate spelling of words; especially prefixes and roots.
Pr-r: Summer pareke and dut parhodi.
The most common mistakes in this type of dysgraphia is the distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word, due to the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis, which is the most complex form of sound analysis.
The most common mistakes:
Omissions of consonants during their confluence (doji-rains, decks-days)
Vowel omissions
Permutations of letters (doll-doll, packets-droplets)
Adding letters (spring-spring)
Omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (bicycle-bicycle).
Agrammatic dysgraphia
It manifests itself in writing and is determined by the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech.
Agrammatisms in writing differ at the level of words, phrases, sentences and text. Most often, morphological and morphosyntactic agrammatisms, violations of control coordination are found in children with dysgraphia.
N-r: Behind the house (behind the house) is a barn.
It was a hot day.
Optical dysgraphia
This type of dysgraphia is due to the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. With optical dysgraphia, the following types of writing disorders are observed:
A) distorted reproduction of letters in a letter (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, underwriting of elements, extra elements);
B) replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters.
As with dyslexia, most often either letters are mixed that differ in one element (P-T, L-M, I-Sh), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space (V-D, E- FROM).
One of the manifestations of optical dysgraphia is mirror writing: mirror writing of letters, writing from left to right, which can be observed in left-handed people with organic brain damage.
Optical dysgraphia is divided into literal and verbal.
Literal dysgraphia manifests itself in the difficulty of reproducing even isolated letters.
In verbal dysgraphia, the reproduction of isolated letters is preserved. However, when writing words, there are distortions of letters, replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters, contextual influences of neighboring letters on the reproduction of the visual image of a letter.
Conclusion
A speech therapist is not an understudy of a teacher and not a tutor, while doing his main job of correcting children's speech defects, he must create a platform for successful assimilation and correct application students of grammar rules, i.e. on the one hand, to bring students to an understanding of grammatical rules, and on the other hand, to consolidate the educational material given by the teacher, associated with the correctional process.
The main task is to educate children's linguistic instinct.
The relationship between the correctional and teaching processes contributes to the successful assimilation by students of the material on their native language as a whole.
Dysgraphia - how to help a child?
Children with dysgraphia can fully master writing, provided they continue to study hard. For some, months are enough; for others, it takes years. Letter vision and speech hearing are exercised.
It is imperative to contact a speech therapist: a speech therapist uses all kinds of games, works out the differences in pronunciation from hard to soft. You also need to contact a psychoneurologist who will advise medications that improve metabolism and memory. Dysgraphia needs to be defeated, but only through the common efforts of parents, a speech therapist, and a psychoneurologist.
Parents can help the child overcome dysgraphia if they conduct classes with him according to the following methodology: for 5 minutes the child will cross out these letters. You can start with vowels, then move on to consonants. You can underline, strikethrough, circle letters.
You can also practice with paired consonants if the child has trouble distinguishing them. As classes progress, the quality of writing improves. The purpose of the subsequent task is to allow the child to personally check his mistakes. To do this, give him an eraser and a pencil. Dictate a not very large text of 1000 characters. Errors do not need to be corrected in the text. In the margins should be marked with a blue pen (do not use red). Give the text to correct the child. He has the ability to erase mistakes and write correctly. The child himself seeks out and corrects mistakes, it is not written in the notebook, the notebook is in excellent condition. When the red pen is applied, it creates negative effect- the child begins to worry and make more mistakes.
It is also necessary to fulfill the following conditions: let the child feel interest and success, triples and deuces discourage his desire to master writing. Do not control the child on the speed of reading. When he can only read 30 words per minute, and the rest 200, do not scold him for this, otherwise he will worry and stutter, and may not read the text at all. Traditionally, the following check is carried out at school: the child is asked to go to the blackboard, hourglass, the teacher looks at the child and notes the time, leads along the line with a pencil, I measure the speed of reading. And if the test is conducted by a teacher, then the child begins to worry even more. In children with dysgraphia, neurosis can form against the background of such exams.
For children with dysgraphia, it is not the quantity that matters, but the quality. You must first develop oral speech, and then writing. The main thing is not to get angry with your parents, not to get excited, not to get too excited. Conviction in success, your endurance, harmonious state - the key to excellent results. It is difficult to overcome dysgraphia in children, it is necessary to coordinate the work of the child, his parents, a psychoneurologist, a speech therapist, only common work and patience, the child’s desire to master writing will solve the problem with illiteracy writing.
There are different types of dysgraphia and all of them are overcome in different ways, which is associated with their different causation. But at the same time, there are a number of such fundamentally important provisions, the consideration of which is necessary to successfully overcome any type of dysgraphia. We consider it necessary to draw the reader's attention to two such provisions.
Firstly, work on overcoming dysgraphia of any kind should never begin directly with exercises in writing, with attempts to eliminate errors in it - this will not give the desired result. First, it is necessary to carry out to the norm those operations that prepare the process of writing and without the proper level of formation of which writing, in principle, cannot proceed normally. So, for example, if a child with acoustic dysgraphia does not distinguish some sounds by ear and, therefore, allows appropriate letter substitutions in writing, then it is useless to exercise him in writing without first teaching him to distinguish sounds. It's the same with all other types of dysgraphia. What is the point of conducting endless dictations with a child who does not know how to analyze the speech flow or is not able to distinguish between letters similar in style? These will be only exercises in incorrect writing, and nothing more.
Secondly, in the process of leveling the "falling links" one should go "bypassing" and rely as much as possible on preserved functions. For example, if a child does not distinguish between the sounds С and Ш by ear, then at first you can draw his attention to different position lips and tongue when pronouncing these sounds, that is, rely on vision and kinesthetic sense (a sense of the position of the articulatory organs). When letters are not distinguished by their appearance (immaturity of visual analysis and synthesis), they often resort to writing letters in the air with the vision turned off, i.e. to support on a motor analyzer, etc. These techniques are well known to speech therapists and are very widely used by them, which is also useful for teachers and parents to keep in mind.
It is important to take into account one more circumstance. Sometimes in children who make dysgraphic errors, it is not possible to identify violations of any specific writing operations (not distinguishing sounds, not recognizing letters, difficulties in analyzing the speech flow, etc.). For this reason, it may seem that there is no ground for dysgraphia here. Such cases have their own explanation. Writing is a complex speech activity that includes a number of operations at various levels that must be carried out simultaneously. So, in the process of writing down words, the child should be able to distinguish all the sounds that make them up, correlate these sounds with certain letters, while choosing the appropriate alphabetic signs and translating the visual images of the letters into motor ones, and also determine the sequence of sounds in the word, not to mention the need to observe graphic norms and at least the most elementary grammatical rules. It is difficult for a child to coordinate all these operations, it is difficult to distribute his attention between them, performing all of them synchronously and at the same time switching from one operation to another in a timely manner. Therefore, it is not surprising that a child who successfully copes with the implementation of each individual operation cannot perform all of them at the same time, which leads to dysgraphic errors. However, this impossibility of combining all the necessary writing operations is still more characteristic of children with insufficient fluency in each of them separately.
Causes of dysgraphia.
Dysgraphia is not considered as an independent disease, it is more often considered as a symptom of various encephalopic neurological dysfunctions and disorders. Often, dysgraphia is assessed as the effect of pathologies in the analytical and synthetic functioning of the motor, auditory, speech, and visual analyzers. A child who suffers from dysgraphia does not fully have the ability to synthesize and analyze various information.
Based on this, dysgraphia can be classified into motor, acoustic and optical.
There is also another point of view, which recognizes that dysgraphia is a language disorder, which lends itself to special psychological and pedagogical methods of elimination.
Dysgraphia - what does it look like in practice?
With dysgraphia, children do not use capital letters, and their dictations include a lot of errors. When writing, children use short phrases with a small vocabulary set. Children are afraid that they will be scolded, as a result of this they refuse to go to Russian language lessons or complete assignments. Children with dysgraphia feel that everyone is laughing at them, that they are inferior, and may often be in a state of depression.
A child with dysgraphia confuses the letters: Z, E; R and b. Such children write dictations unevenly, slowly, if they are upset by something, then their handwriting is completely impossible to distinguish. It is also necessary to understand that the errors that were made due to ignorance of the rules of grammar are not dysgraphia.
If a child has a hearing impairment, it is difficult for him to learn to write and read. It is difficult for him to master written speech, since he is unable to determine what sound this or that letter means. The rapid flow of speech completely disorients the baby. Teaching literacy to a child who has speech hearing impairments is not an easy pedagogical task.
To study writing, a child must have a satisfactory intellectual level, speech hearing and remember how letters are written. The unequal formation of the cerebral hemispheres can also be a prerequisite for dysgraphia. The center of speech is located in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere gives the answer for the correct understanding of images, symbols. A child with dysraphia has great difficulty studying writing, but draws well. The inability to acquire language does not prevent these children from "talking" through drawing.
Parents should pay attention to the mirror bias of the reflection of the letters. Letters can be flipped to the other side. A special role is played by the factor of heredity, when the child is inherited by the underdevelopment of brain structures.
The basis of dysgraphia can also be bilingualism in the family. Many families leave their homeland, move, and learn another language.
How to detect dysgraphia?
Dysgraphia is determined by the presence of “peculiar errors”: a child can skip syllables, letters, words, rearrange them, shift and change letters, and does not recognize letters that are similar in outline. Violation of word agreement, construction of a sentence, links in a sentence.
Dysgraphia classification
The classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria:
Taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed
writing operations.
OA Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.
With acoustic dysgraphia, there is a lack of differentiation of the auditory
Perceptions, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent
There are mixtures and omissions, replacements of letters denoting sounds similar in
Articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation on
Optical dysgraphia is due to the instability of visual impressions and
Submissions. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correlate with certain
Sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to
Inaccuracies of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. Most often
Mixings of the following handwritten letters are observed:
In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Child writes
Only single letters. In some cases, especially in left-handers, there is
Mirror writing, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.
Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulty in moving the hand during
Letters, violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process
It indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity,
Including a large number of operations of various levels: semantic,
Linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia based on
Analyzer level violations are currently not enough
Justified.
The types of dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's
Representation of violations of the letter. Consider them
1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and defects phonemic hearing.
In this form, the write-off is preserved.
The physiological mechanism of the defect is the violation of associative links
Between sight and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, and
Also merging two words into one, skipping words, etc.
The basis of this type is the non-differentiation of auditory perception.
The sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.
Violation of the differentiation of sounds and with a violation of phonemic analysis and
Synthesis.
2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders (“graphic
tongue-tiedness"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of an incorrect
Sound pronunciation. Replacing some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in
pronunciation cause appropriate substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E.
Khvattsev singles out and special form due to "experienced" tongue-tied tongue (when
The sound pronunciation disorder disappeared before the start of literacy training or after the start
mastery of writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the
Rougher and more varied errors of writing. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized
Justified at present.
3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev
He believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm in writing
There are gaps in vowels, syllables, endings. Errors may be due
Either underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or distortions
The sound-syllabic structure of the word.
4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by a disorder or deficiency
Optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of the visual
An image of a letter, a word. With literal dysgraphia, a child's visual
The image of the letter, there are distortions and replacements of isolated letters. With verbal
Dysgraphia writing isolated letters is safe, but with difficulty
A visual image of the word is formed, the child writes words with gross errors.
With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish between similar graphically handwritten
Letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - w, l - m.
5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions,
Distortions in the structure of words, sentences and are caused by the decay of oral speech
Due to organic brain damage.
The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on
The lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed
Employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen). The following
It can be replenished due to redundancy, due to fixed in speech experience
Motor stereotypes, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing to
The correct distinction and choice of a phoneme requires a fine analysis of all
Acoustic signs of sound that are semantic-distinctive.
On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes
Carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images,
Submission. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically
In close sounds, the choice of a particular phoneme is difficult, which results in
Writing disorders in mentally retarded children associate letter substitutions with the fact that
With phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and
Do not use auditory controls.
In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky, the main
The mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds is considered
Difficulties of kinesthetic analysis. Their research shows that children with
Dysgraphia underutilizes kinesthetic sensations (speaking)
While writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation, as during auditory
Dictation and independent writing. Speech exception (method
L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e. does not lead to them
Increase. At the same time, the exclusion of speaking while writing in children
Without dysgraphia leads to an increase in errors in writing by 8-9 times.
Underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation
Phoneme selection operations (R. E. Levina, L. F. Spirova).
For correct writing enough level functioning of all
Operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes. If any link is broken
(auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operations, auditory and
kinesthetic control) hampers the whole process of phonemic
Recognition, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in a letter. Therefore, taking into account
Impaired phonemic recognition operations can be divided into the following subspecies
This form of dysgraphia: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.
3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. At the heart of it
Lies breaking various forms language analysis and synthesis: division of sentences
On words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. Language underdevelopment
Analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and
Offers. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic
Analysis. As a result, especially common in this type of dysgraphia
There will be distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.
The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence
(dictation - "dikat", school - "cola"); vowel gaps (dog
- “sbaka”, at home - “dma”); permutations of letters (trail - "prota",
Window - "kono"); adding letters (drag - "drag"); passes,
Additions, permutation of syllables (room - "cat", glass -
For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic
The analysis was formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in
Internal plan, according to the presentation.
Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in
Continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining
- “I’m gone”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (white
A birch grows by the window - “belabe will grow an eye”); separate spelling
Prefixes and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).
Writing disorders due to unformed phonemic analysis and
Syntheses are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I.
Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.
It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in the mixing or omission of letters, in the distortion of the sound-syllabic composition of the word and the structure of sentences. In the case of unformed reading and writing processes (during training), they speak of alexia and agraphia.
Writing and reading disorders in children are caused by difficulties in mastering the skills necessary for the full implementation of these processes. According to researchers, these difficulties are caused by defects in oral speech (with the exception of optical forms), the unformedness of sound analysis operations, and the instability of voluntary attention.
Writing and reading disorders in children must be distinguished from the loss of writing and reading skills, i.e., dyslexia (alexia) and dysgraphia (agraphia) that occur with aphasia.
Thus, 11 forms are distinguished in speech therapy speech disorders, 9 of them constitute violations of oral speech at different stages of its generation and implementation, and 2 forms constitute violations of written speech, distinguished depending on the disturbed process. Oral speech disorders: dysphonia(aphonia), tachyllalia, bradilalia, stuttering, dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria(anartria), alalia, aphasia. Writing disorders: dyslexia(alexia) and dysgraphia(agraphia).
The above classification includes only those forms of speech disorders that are identified in the speech therapy literature and for which methods have been developed. Within each of the forms of speech disorders, there are types and subspecies, which are reflected in subsequent chapters. In this regard, it should be pointed out that in some cases, types of violations related to one form do not represent an option, but a separate violation. For example, dyslexia includes, on the one hand, articulatory-phonetic disorders, i.e., defects in the actual sound realization of speech, related to the level speech norm, and on the other hand, phonemic disorders due to the lack of formation of operations that select sounds, and related to the level of structural (linguistic) formulation of the utterance.
The noted inconsistency in classification has become especially noticeable in the modern period of the development of science in connection with increased knowledge of speech (psychological and physiological) mechanisms and new research in speech therapy. Each new stage in the development of science and new knowledge require the introduction of corrective ideas into the previous ideas, therefore, further development of the classification of speech disorders remains an urgent task of speech therapy.
Psychological and pedagogical classification arose as a result of a critical analysis of the clinical classification in terms of its applicability in pedagogical process what is the logopedic effect. Such an analysis turned out to be necessary in connection with the orientation of speech therapy to the education and upbringing of children with speech development disorders.
The attention of researchers was directed to the development of methods speech therapy impact to work with a team of children ( study group, class). To do this, it was necessary to find the general manifestations of the defect at different forms abnormal speech development in children, especially those relevant to remedial learning. This approach required a different principle of grouping violations: not from the general to the particular, but from the particular to the general. This made it possible to build it on the basis of linguistic and psychological criteria, among which the structural components of the speech system (sound side, grammatical structure, vocabulary), functional aspects of speech, the ratio of types of speech activity (oral and written) are taken into account.
A violation of the letter is such a deviation from the generally accepted norms of these processes, which differs by itself not passing, i.e. persistent character, requiring special assistance and affecting the personality and social adaptation child.
The pathology of writing is denoted by the following terms: agraphia (from the Greek a - a particle meaning negation, grapho - I write) - a complete inability to assimilate writing and dysgraphia (from the Greek dis - a prefix meaning disorder, grapho - I write) - specific (partial) writing violation.
Lalaeva R.I. and Benediktova L.V. define dysgraphia as a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.
I.N. Sadovnikova defines dysgraphia as partial disorder writing (in younger schoolchildren - difficulties in mastering written speech), the main symptom of which is the presence of persistent specific errors. The occurrence of such errors among students of a general education school is not associated with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling.
A.N. Kornev calls dysgraphia a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing) despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence of gross visual and hearing impairments.
According to Khvattsev M.E. dysgraphia (dis - disorder; grapho - I write) are various disorders of written speech that arise on the basis of pathological conditions of oral speech, the whole organism or the psyche of the writer.
So, let's dwell on the fact that dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process. It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in the confusion or omission of letters, in the distortion of the sound-syllabic composition of the word and the structure of sentences.
Dysgraphic errors are persistent and specific, they are not associated with the knowledge and application of spelling rules. In addition, errors can be characterized as dysgraphic only when they are observed in children of school age, since in preschool children many mental functions that provide the writing process are not yet sufficiently formed.
The causes of dysgraphia can be organic and functional, biological and social.
Writing disorders can be caused by organic damage to the cortical areas of the brain involved in the process of reading and writing, delayed maturation of these brain systems, and disruption of their functioning. Writing disorders can be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as with adverse external factors (incorrect speech of others, bilingualism, insufficient attention to the development of a child’s speech in the family, insufficient speech contacts, unfavorable family environment, pedagogical neglect, incorrect literacy, hyper-custody).
Sadovnikova I.N. emphasizes that writing disorders may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that acted in different periods of the child's development. In addition, dyslexia and dysgraphia occur with organic speech disorders.
Some researchers note a hereditary predisposition to dyslexia (B. Khapyren, M. Rudinesko, etc.), when the qualitative immaturity of individual brain structures involved in the organization of written speech is transmitted.
Research recent decades prove that often one of the reasons for the considered violations of reading and writing are the difficulties in the formation of the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensory-motor organs), as well as a delay in the child's awareness of the body schema. Dysgraphia may be the result of a violation of the perception of space and time, as well as the analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequences.
In the domestic literature, the concept of R.E. Levina, who interprets reading and writing disorders as a manifestation of a systemic speech disorder, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links.
1) the causes that affect the child's body as a whole, on individual mental processes that weaken them, slowing down the pace of their development. Such causes affect the parts of the brain, analyzer systems, physiologically weakening the development of a particular system. 2) the reasons that are considered in the linguistic aspect and they are directly related to the underdevelopment of one of the components of the functional basis of written speech.
The causes of writing disorders in children were analyzed in most detail by A.N. Root. In turn, in the etiology of writing disorders, the author distinguishes three groups of phenomena:
First group- these are constitutional prerequisites: individual features of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of writing disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.
Second group- are encephalopathic disorders harmful effects during periods of natal development. Damage at the early stages of ontogenesis often causes abnormalities in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (birth and postnatal development) affects the higher cortical regions of the brain to a greater extent. The impact of harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems, to uneven development of individual brain functions (minimal brain dysfunctions).
Third group The reasons for the occurrence of dysgraphia are unfavorable social and environmental factors. These factors include:
· not correlated with the actual maturity of the child, the time of the beginning of literacy;
· the volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child's capabilities;
methods and pace of learning that do not correspond to the individual characteristics of the child.
Thus, according to A.N. Kornev, difficulties in mastering written language arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: 1. biological insufficiency of the brain systems; 2. based on functional insufficiency; 3. environmental conditions that place increased demands on retarded or immature mental functions.
Based on the knowledge about the structural components of the functional basis of written speech, we can conclude that all symptoms of writing disorders can be due to two factors ( Annex 2):
1) unformed oral speech: phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical processes.
2) unformed visual and motor processes
Let's consider each factor in more detail.
Unformed phonetic- phonemic processes
The following groups of specific errors are distinguished:
Errors at the letter and syllable level;
Errors at the level of words and sentences (phrases).
Errors at the letter and syllable level - these are substitutions, omissions, insertions, permutations of letters and syllables.
Substitutions may be associated with the lack of formation of the acoustic component of speech and articulation.
Substitutions for letters and syllables acoustic feature appear when the writer singles out a certain sound in the composition of the word, but for its designation he chooses a letter that does not correspond to it. Such errors are based on the difficulties of differentiating phonemes that have an acoustic-articulatory similarity. According to the acoustic-articulatory similarity, the following phonemes are usually mixed: labialized vowels; paired voiced and deaf consonants; sonorous; whistling and hissing. Affricates mix both among themselves and with any of their components.
Substitutions of letters and syllables according to the articulation feature are due to the unformed movements of the organs of articulation. As a rule, such substitutions are due to the initial unformed sounds.
The lack of formation of the action of sound analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in the form of the following types of specific errors: omission, rearrangement, insertion of letters and syllables. Sound analysis is an action to establish the sequence and number of sounds in a word. Pass indicates that the student does not isolate all of its sound components in the composition of the word, for example: "snks" - sleds; The omission of several letters in a word is the result of a grosser violation of sound analysis, leading to a distortion and simplification of the structure of the word: health - "dorve";
Permutations letters and syllables are the result of difficulties in analyzing the sequence of sounds in a word. Syllabic structure at the same time, words can be preserved without distortion, for example: closet - “chunal”;
inserts vowels are usually observed with a confluence of consonants (especially when one of them is explosive): “shekola”, “girl. These insertions can be explained by an overtone that inevitably appears when the word is spoken slowly during writing and resembles a reduced vowel.
Errors at the word and sentence level are associated with the lack of formation of language analysis and synthesis at the word or sentence level. The child cannot catch and isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech flow. This leads to the continuous writing of adjacent words or to the separate writing of parts of the word. At the initial stage of learning, children hardly learn the articulation of the text into speech units, which is reflected in the lack of designation of sentence boundaries: capital letters and dots. Insertions, omissions and permutation of words and sentences are also noted.
Lack of formation of lexical and grammatical processes
In this group there will be errors that occur in the group of errors due to phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment. In addition, in this group there are errors that are associated with lexical and grammatical underdevelopment:
Morphemic agrammatism - children do not realize the generalized meaning of morphemes, often mistakenly use a prefix or suffix. Mistakes are clearly detected in the operation of word formation (ice - "ice"; honey - "medic", "hand" - "hands").
Agrammatisms - a violation of the connection of words: coordination and control. Changing words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time forms a complex system of codes that allows you to streamline the phenomena designated, highlight the features and attribute them to certain categories. The insufficient level of language generalizations sometimes does not allow schoolchildren to catch categorical differences in parts of speech. Significant difficulties are associated with the use of prepositions: they can be omitted, replaced, less often doubled. Children with dysgraphia also find it difficult to choose the appropriate form of the verb.
Certain difficulties are presented by operating homogeneous members suggestions .
Unformed visual and motor processes
Such errors are noted as: substitutions for the same form of the letter (p-n, p-i, s-o, i-sh, y-d, i-y, b-d, e-s, w-g, c and t .p.), replacements by spatial arrangement (Z - E, c-e), replacements by the number of elements (i-w, t - n). The lack of formation of motor processes is manifested in the fact that the child cannot switch from one movement to another.
Among the listed errors, there are those that are similar in their manifestations. Most a prime example such errors are the replacement of letters. In writing, it is impossible to distinguish an error associated with the unformed phonemic processes from an error associated with the unformed articulatory processes in a child. So, the reason for writing “shanka” instead of “sledge”, “ezik” instead of “hedgehog”, “zalya” instead of “dawn” may be that the child does not distinguish these sounds by ear, but pronounces them quite correctly, and then, that the child replaces these sounds during pronunciation, but differentiates them by ear. With such errors, only after examining the sound and phonemic side of speech, it is possible to establish what type of error in writing is characteristic of the child. Substitutions due to the unformed visual and motor processes are usually easy to distinguish from other errors, but there are difficult cases where it is difficult to do so. For example, if a child writes not “porridge”, but “porridge”, the question arises whether he replaces these letters because he does not distinguish them in form, or because the child’s motor processes are not sufficiently formed (adds extra elements) , or the child replaces the letters due to the above errors (acoustic, articulatory). To differentiate such errors, you should check whether the child distinguishes letters by their shape, how the child writes off words. If no errors were found with this type of checking, then we are talking about errors that are due to the unformed acoustic and articulatory processes that are described above.
Also, when analyzing written work, it should be remembered that children often make spelling mistakes that can easily be mistaken for dysgraphic ones.
Errors due to the lack of formation of analysis and synthesis and errors due to the underdevelopment of lexical and grammatical categories do not cause difficulties in distinguishing them.
Thus, we found out that dysgraphia is a specific (partial) violation of the letter. Errors in dysgraphia are persistent and can only occur in children not younger than school age. The causes of dysgraphia are varied, they can be organic and functional, biological and social. We indicated the symptoms of errors and identified errors that are similar in their manifestation.
AT primary school In general education schools, there are children whose process of mastering writing and reading is impaired. A partial disorder in the processes of reading and writing is denoted by the terms dyslexia and dysgraphia. Their main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which among students of a general education school is not associated with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling. Dyslexia and dysgraphia usually occur together. A complete inability to master writing and reading is called agraphia and alexia, respectively. The causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia are associated with a violation of the interaction of various analyzer systems of the cerebral cortex.
Dysgraphia manifests itself in persistent and repetitive writing errors. These errors are usually grouped according to the following principles: shifts and replacements of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; spelling disorders individual words in a sentence - breaking a word into parts, merged spelling of words in a sentence; agrammatism; mixing letters by optical similarity.
Violation of writing in the form of dysgraphia is closely related to the insufficient readiness of mental processes that are formed during the development of oral speech. It is during the period of mastering oral speech that generalized concepts of the sound and morphological composition of the word are created on a purely practical level, which subsequently, when the child moves to literacy and spelling, contributes to their conscious assimilation. To master literacy and the phonetic and morphological principles inherent in Russian writing, a child must be able to separate the sound side of a word from the semantic one, analyze the sound composition of a word clearly pronounced in all its parts. For fluent oral speech, it is often sufficient to clearly pronounce only those sounds that are necessary for understanding the word (semantic sounds). Those sounds that are less related to the listener's understanding of the word are pronounced less carefully and definitely in natural speech. Too clear articulation of all the sound elements of the word contradicts the orthoepic requirements of the language. At the same time, in the process of normal speech ontogenesis, a child acquires a fairly accurate idea of the sound composition of a word, including its unclearly pronounced elements. This turns out to be possible due to linguistic generalizations that develop with the constant comparison of words with each other. In the process of correlating sound elements that reflect the difference between the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, the child's cognitive processes are being prepared for understanding the relationship between orthoepy and spelling. Successful mastery of writing is preceded not only by the accumulation of a sufficient vocabulary, but also by the presence in speech experience of a conscious analysis of words according to adequate signs of correlating orthoepy and spelling. So, the child must be aware that the words fly in, fly in have the same root. The normal formation of oral speech is accompanied by the accumulated experience of cognitive work both in the field of elementary sound generalizations and in the field of morphological analysis.
Children with speech underdevelopment do not master this level of linguistic generalization and, accordingly, are not ready to master such a complex analytical and synthetic activity as writing.
Currently, it is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.
Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With this form of dysgraphia, children experience various distortions of sound pronunciation (phonetic disorders) and insufficiency phonemic perception speech sounds, differing in subtle acoustic-articulatory features and (phonetic-phonemic disorders). Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself mainly in the substitutions of letters that correspond to the substitutions of sounds in the child's oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters remain in the child's letter even after they are eliminated in oral speech. According to R. E. Levina (1959), this is because children with speech pathology do not develop generalized concepts about the sound and morphological composition of the word during the period of mastering oral speech. Normally, it is the creation of these generalizations that allows primary school students to consciously move on to acquiring literacy and spelling.
Acoustic dysgraphia. In children with this form of dysgraphia, the processes of phonemic perception are not well formed. This is manifested in the substitutions and mixtures of letters, which denote sounds that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features. For example, substitutions and displacements of letters denoting whistling and hissing sounds; voiced and deaf; soft and hard; sounds r and l; substitutions of letters denoting vowel sounds. In addition, children may have an unformed sound analysis and synthesis, which manifests itself in writing in the form of the following specific errors: omissions, insertions, permutations, repetitions of letters or syllables. The omissions of letters indicate that the child does not isolate all of its sound components (“snks” - sledges) in the composition of the word. The permutations and repetitions of letters and syllables are an expression of the difficulties in analyzing the sequences of sounds in a word (“korvom” - a carpet, “sugar” - sugar). Insertions of vowels are more often observed with consonant clusters, which is explained by the overtone that appears when the word is spoken slowly during writing and resembles a reduced vowel (“girl”, “Alexandar”).
Dysgraphia associated with impaired language analysis and synthesis. This form of dysgraphia is due to the fact that students do not isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech flow. This leads to the continuous spelling of adjacent words, prepositions and conjunctions with the subsequent word ("on a tree"); to the separate writing of parts of the word, more often the prefix and the root (“and dut”).
Agrammatical dysgraphia. This form of dysgraphia is more clearly traced than others due to the lack of development of the grammatical side of oral speech in children. In writing, grammatical connections between words are violated, as well as semantic connections between sentences.
Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of spatial representations, analysis and synthesis of visual perception.
This is manifested in the replacements and distortions of letters similar in outline (d - b, t - w, and - w, p - t, x - w, l - m), incorrect arrangement of letter elements, etc. This type of dysgraphia includes the so-called "mirror writing".
A child with dysgraphia usually has difficulty developing graphic skills, resulting in uneven handwriting. The child's difficulty in choosing the right letter gives a characteristic sloppy look to the letter. It is full of corrections and corrections.
Dyslexia as a partial disorder of the process of mastering reading is manifested in numerous repeated errors in the form of substitutions, permutations, omissions of letters, etc., which is due to the unformed mental functions that ensure the process of mastering reading. Mistakes in dyslexia are persistent.
There are the following forms of dyslexia
phonemic dyslexia. It is observed in children with unformed functions of phonemic perception, analysis and synthesis. Children in the process of reading confuse letters denoting sounds that are similar in acoustic and articulatory parameters. With the underdevelopment of the functions of phonemic analysis and synthesis, letter-by-letter reading, distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word (inserts, omissions, permutations) are observed.
Semantic dyslexia is due to the unformed processes of evucosyllabic synthesis and the lack of differentiated ideas about syntactic links inside the offer. Such children master the technique of reading, but they read mechanically, without understanding the meaning of what they read.
Agrammatical dyslexia is observed in children with unformed grammatical side of oral speech. When reading sentences, grammatical errors are observed.
Mnestic dyslexia is associated with a violation of the establishment of associative links between the visual image of a letter and the auditory image of a sound, that is, children cannot remember letters and compare them with the corresponding sounds.
Optical dyslexia is caused by the same mechanisms as optical dysgraphia. When reading, letters similar in outline are mixed and interchanged by children. Sometimes "mirror reading" can be observed.
Children with dysgraphia and dyslexia need speech therapy classes, which use special methods for the formation of writing and reading skills.
Clinical-psychological-pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders
Children with speech disorders usually have functional or organic deviations in the state of the central nervous system.
The presence of an organic brain lesion determines that these children do not tolerate heat, stuffiness, riding in transport, long swings, they often complain of headaches, nausea and dizziness. Many of them have various motor disorders: imbalance, coordination of movements, undifferentiated movements of the fingers and articulatory movements (i.e., unformed general and oral praxis).
Such children are quickly exhausted and fed up with any kind of activity (i.e., they get tired quickly). They are characterized by irritability, increased excitability. Motor disinhibition, cannot sit still, fiddle with something in their hands, dangle their legs, etc. They are emotionally unstable, the mood changes quickly. Often there are mood disorders with the manifestation of aggression, obsession, anxiety. Much less often they have lethargy and lethargy. These children tire quite quickly, and this fatigue accumulates during the day towards the evening, as well as towards the end of the week. Fatigue affects the general behavior of the child, his well-being. This can manifest itself in increased headaches, sleep disturbance, lethargy, or, conversely, increased motor activity. It is difficult for such children to maintain perseverance, efficiency and voluntary attention throughout the lesson. Their motor disinhibition can be expressed in the fact that they show motor restlessness while sitting in class, get up, walk around the classroom, run out into the corridor during the lesson. During the break, children are overly excitable, do not respond to comments, and after the break they can hardly concentrate on the lesson.
As a rule, such children have instability of attention and memory, especially speech, low level understanding of verbal instructions, insufficiency of the regulatory function of speech, low level of control over one's own activity, impaired cognitive activity, low mental performance.
The mental state of these children is unstable, and therefore their performance changes dramatically. During the period of psychosomatic well-being, such children can achieve quite high results in their studies.
Children with functional deviations in the state of the central nervous system are emotionally reactive, easily give neurotic reactions and even disorders in response to a remark, a bad mark, a disrespectful attitude from the teacher and children. Their behavior may be characterized by negativism, increased excitability, aggression, or, on the contrary, increased shyness, indecision, fearfulness. All this as a whole testifies to the special state of the central nervous system of children suffering from speech disorders.
The system of special institutions for children with speech disorders
In addition to special kindergartens for children with speech disorders, there are special (speech therapy) groups in general kindergartens, as well as speech therapy points in general kindergartens. At general education schools, there are points of correctional and pedagogical assistance, where a defectologist provides assistance to children with speech disorders and learning difficulties. In addition, there are special schools for children with severe speech disorders.
Regardless of the type of institution, speech therapy assistance that persons with speech disorders receive is carried out only under the conditions of a comprehensive medical, psychological and pedagogical impact. It involves the inclusion in the process of rehabilitation work of a number of specialists (speech therapist, doctor, psychologist) according to the needs of a child or adult with speech pathology.
Since speech is a complex mental function, a deviation in its development and its violation, as a rule, are a sign of serious changes in the state of the central nervous system. This means that not only speech suffers, but all higher mental functions in general. Children with speech pathology tend to have greater or lesser learning difficulties. At the same time, the vast majority of children with speech disorders study in general education schools. Since the pronounced signs of speech disorders at school age may already be absent, teachers often associate difficulties in teaching such children with deficiencies in education, low parental control, and social neglect. However, these children require special attention from teachers.
First of all, children who have learning difficulties and, especially in mastering the process of writing and reading, should be referred to a defectologist. In addition, these children need a more favorable (facilitated) learning regimen. Such a regime is characterized not by a decrease in the level of requirements for the assimilation of program material, but by the organization of a training regime. First of all, they need special psychological support from the teacher. This is expressed in encouragement, soft tone of remarks, encouragement, etc. The tasks that are set for the class as a whole in educational process, for such children should be detailed, instructions should be more detailed, that is, be accessible for understanding and implementation.
In cases where a child has persistent writing and reading errors, he should not be forced to repeat the same tasks over and over again. In this case, the child needs specialized speech therapy assistance using corrective methods teaching writing and reading.
When communicating with students with learning difficulties, the teacher should pay great attention to the quality of his speech, since the quality of perception will depend on this. educational material children. The speech of the teacher should be slow, measured, consist of short and clear sentences, emotionally expressive. And most importantly, general background The behavior of the teacher and the appeal to the children (facial expressions, gestures, intonation) should be benevolent, arouse in the child a desire to cooperate.
If there are stuttering children in the class, it is recommended not to replace the oral answers of these children with written ones; oral interviews should be conducted on the spot, without calling to the board, and also without starting the survey with stuttering children. If the child has a pronounced fear of speech, it is recommended to interview the stutterer after the lesson. At the same time, the teacher's soft, benevolent attitude towards the child will help improve the quality of his speech.
According to statistics, 60% of children have speech disorders. Every year in preschool institutions, the number of children who have certain speech disorders, expressed to a greater or lesser extent, increases. By carrying out special correctional and pedagogical work with preschoolers, in many cases it is possible to prevent or prevent the development of speech pathology in the future. However, not all preschool children, for various reasons, are covered by this work. As a result, some children of primary school age have various difficulties in mastering written language, which in turn lead to a delay in mastering the school curriculum.
According to I. N. Sadovnikova, “the problem of writing disorders among schoolchildren is one of the most urgent, since it (written speech) becomes the basis and means of further education.”
Written speech includes writing and reading as equal components.
Reading is one of the types of speech activity, closely related to both pronunciation and understanding of what is read (L. F., Spirova) The perception and discrimination of letters is only the outer side of the reading process, behind which the most essential and basic actions with the sounds of the language are hidden ( D. B. Elkonin)
A letter is a sign system of speech fixation, which allows using graphic elements to transmit information at a distance and fix it in time. Writing is understood as a means of capturing a person's thoughts with the help of specially created symbols.
Writing disorders are called dysgraphia and dyslexia.
Dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process, due to the lack of formation (violation) of higher mental functions and manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature.
Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the formation of the writing process, causing persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which is not associated with ignorance of grammatical rules, but is due to underdevelopment or partial damage to the brain mechanisms that provide a complex multi-level process of writing.
Reading and writing errors should not be considered ridiculous and explained by the personal qualities of students: inability to listen to the teacher's explanation, inattention when writing, careless attitude to work, etc. In fact, these errors are based on more serious reasons.
To understand the mechanisms of these disorders, it is necessary to have an idea of what controls the processes of reading and writing. Written speech is formed only in conditions of purposeful learning, its mechanisms are formed during the period of literacy and improved in the course of all further learning.
It is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. Mastering written speech is the establishment of new connections between the word heard and spoken, and the word visible and written. This is a multi-level process in which various analyzers take part: motor speech (providing the perception and analysis of information from the speech apparatus, i.e. perception and analysis by the article, and organizing the preparation and execution of speech movements, visual (providing the perception and analysis of visual stimuli, namely controls the selection and recognition of graphemes, speech-auditory (provides the perception of phonemes as acoustic stimuli and the perception of the semantic content of the utterance of oral speech, general motor (with its help, the grapheme is translated into a kinema (a set of certain movements necessary for recording).
The regulation and coordination of the work of these analyzers is carried out in the parietal-occipital-temporal regions of the brain. Normally, at 10-11 years of life, the formation of this process ends. In the frontal parts of the brain, an impulse to act is born, that is, the motive for writing and reading, and the work of all structures involved in these processes is controlled. Only with the coordinated work of all analyzers and with the preservation of certain brain structures is it possible to successfully master the skills of writing and reading.
What are the reasons behind the writing disorders that teachers most often face at school?
Of great importance for mastering the processes of writing and reading is the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech. Therefore, violations or delays in the development of phonemic hearing and perception, the lexical and grammatical side of speech, sound pronunciation at different stages of development are one of the main causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia.
The hereditary factor is also important, when the child is given the underdevelopment of brain structures, their qualitative immaturity. In this case, as a result of the difficulty of cortical control in mastering written language, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school age.
Thus, the untimely formation of the process of lateralization (the establishment of the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres) can serve as a source of failure in the development of written speech. By the time of learning to read and write, the child should already have a clear lateral orientation, the leading hand has been determined. With a delay in this process, with hidden forms of left-handedness, cortical control over many types of activity is difficult.
The cause of dyslexia and dysgraphia can also be a disorder in the systems that provide spatial and temporal perception.
It happens that reading and writing disorders can be caused by bilingualism in the family.
Also, the reasons for the development of speech disorders in younger students can be the lack of formation of arbitrary forms of activity, the lack of development of higher mental processes, as well as instability emotional sphere and pedagogical neglect.
The first signs of the development of dysgraphia and dyslexia can be noticed by the teacher when teaching the child to read and write. It is necessary to keep in mind the following: all errors that can be attributed to dysgraphic and dyslexic are specific, typical and persistent. If a child has errors in reading and writing that can be attributed to specific ones, but they are rare, from time to time or even single, then this is most likely the result of overwork, inattention. Here further observation is needed. The main manifestations (symptoms) of violations of written speech.
Symptoms of dyslexia
1. Replacing and mixing sounds when reading, most often phonetically close sounds (voiced and deaf, affricates and sounds included in their composition, as well as replacing graphically similar letters (X - F, P - N, Z - V).
2. Letter-by-letter reading - a violation of the fusion of sounds into syllables and words.
3. Distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word, which manifests itself in omissions of consonants during the confluence of the machinist - machinist, in omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of confluence, additions, rearrangements of sounds, omissions and rearrangements of syllables.
4. Violation of reading comprehension. It manifests itself at the level of a single word, sentence, text, when there is no breakdown of the technical side in the process of reading.
5. Agrammatism when reading. It manifests itself at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stages of mastering reading skills. Violations are noted case endings, noun and adjective agreement, verb endings, etc.
The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in persistent and repetitive mistakes in the writing process, which can be grouped as follows.
1. Distortions and replacements of letters. Such errors are associated with a violation of pronunciation (substitutions for hardness - softness, deafness - sonority, articulatory similarity, as well as the replacement of graphically similar letters.
2. Distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word, which manifests itself in omissions of consonants during the confluence of the machinist - machinist, in omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of confluence, additions, permutations of sounds, omissions and permutations of syllables.
3. Violation of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence: separate writing of parts of the word (prefixes are separated from the word, the continuous writing of prepositions with words, the displacement of the boundaries of the word “at Dedmo Rza” - at Santa Claus.
4. Agrammatisms in writing. Violation of the connection of words: coordination and control.
The teacher needs to convince the parents to visit the consultations of a speech therapist or defectologist and a psychologist. Depending on what are the reasons for the problems in learning, classes are shown either with one specialist or with several at the same time. After consultations, if your suspicion has been confirmed, and the child has started attending classes with a speech therapist to the class teacher, it is necessary to maintain constant contact with the speech therapist and assist him in his work.
Throughout the special classes, the child needs a favorable regime. After numerous twos and threes, unpleasant conversations at home, he should feel at least a small, but success. Therefore, it is desirable that at least for a while the teacher refuses to correct in notebooks in red. This, firstly, "noises" the information, which is contained in specific errors, which interferes with the teacher. Secondly, for a child with dysgraphia, a solid red background in a notebook is an additional stress factor.
There is a technique by which the student writes with a pencil, and the teacher does not correct the mistake, but puts a mark in the margins. The student has the opportunity not to cross out, but to erase his mistakes, to write correctly.
When a child makes a lot of mistakes, parents often hear teachers recommend reading and writing more. And they do it literally. The approach to a child suffering from dyslexia and dysgraphia should be completely different. At the first stages, the work is mainly oral: exercises for the development of phonemic perception, sound analysis of the word. Dictation here will only bring harm. Numerous mistakes that will inevitably be made when writing them are fixed in the memory of the child. For the same reason, it is undesirable for children with dysgraphia to give exercises with uncorrected text. And the work on the mistakes should be carried out as recommended by the speech therapist. The bottom line is that it is undesirable for a child to see misspelled words.
If you are asked to read a text or write a lot at home, advise parents that the child does this not in one go, but intermittently, breaking the text into parts. This will enable students with writing disabilities to do better with their homework.
These are general techniques that will help teachers in working with such children, but a teacher can get more detailed advice on the methodology of working with each child from a speech therapist who leads the correction process.
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